Planning training using principles

Making training purposeful

A training programme is a planned series of exercise sessions designed to improve fitness for a particular goal. Simply repeating exercise is not enough: the work must suit the performer, challenge the body appropriately and allow recovery. The principles of training help organise these decisions.

Individual needs means tailoring training to the performer. Two people preparing for the same event may need different programmes because their starting fitness, strengths, weaknesses and goals differ. A beginner should not automatically copy the workload of an experienced athlete.

Specificity means matching training to the demands of the activity. Improvements are linked to the muscles, movements and energy systems being trained. A sprinter needs work that develops fast running, whereas a distance runner needs work that develops the ability to sustain exercise. Even players in the same sport have different demands: a football goalkeeper may focus on shoulder flexibility and the power needed to jump for the ball.

Individual needs asks, ‘What does this performer need?’ Specificity asks, ‘Does this training match what they need to do?’

Increasing the challenge through FITT

Overload means placing greater demands on the body than it is accustomed to. With suitable recovery, the body adapts and fitness improves. Progressive overload means increasing those demands gradually as the performer becomes fitter. If the workload always stays the same, it may eventually become too easy to produce further improvement.

FITT gives four variables for planning and adjusting training:

Frequency, intensity and time can be increased gradually to provide overload. Type helps ensure that the work remains specific to the goal; changing activity does not automatically make training more demanding.

For example, a football goalkeeper could progressively increase box jumps from eight to ten as their ability improves. This increases the amount of work while retaining movements relevant to jumping. A plan should state the actual adjustment rather than simply promise to ‘train harder’.

Balancing work, recovery and consistency

More training is not always better. Overtraining occurs when excessive exercise is combined with inadequate rest and recovery. Persistent fatigue, declining performance and an increased risk of injury can follow. A programme therefore needs recovery between demanding sessions, not just an ever-increasing workload.

Progressive overload and overtraining are different: overload provides a manageable challenge; overtraining exceeds what the performer can recover from. Increasing every FITT variable sharply at once makes the workload harder to manage. Progression should reflect how well the performer is coping.

Reversibility means that fitness gains decline when training stops or becomes insufficient to maintain them. For example, a performer may return from a break with lower fitness than before. Regular, appropriate training helps maintain gains, but avoiding reversibility does not mean exercising without rest. Planned recovery supports improvement; a prolonged lack of sufficient training allows gains to be lost.

Together, these principles suggest a cycle: plan suitable work, complete it, monitor progress and recovery, then adjust the programme. If performance improves and the workload becomes easier, gradual progression may be appropriate. If fatigue builds and performance falls, adding more work may worsen the problem.

Using heart rate to guide intensity

Heart rate can help a performer judge how hard they are working. A training threshold is a boundary, while a target zone is the range between two boundaries.

For this course, use the simplified Karvonen formula to estimate maximum heart rate:

$$\text{MaxHR} = 220 - \text{age in years}$$

MaxHR and the resulting training thresholds are expressed in beats per minute, abbreviated to bpm.

The prescribed target zones are:

• Aerobic: 60–80% of MaxHR, used to guide training for aerobic endurance.
• Anaerobic: 80–90% of MaxHR, used to guide higher-intensity anaerobic work.

Calculate each boundary by multiplying MaxHR by the percentage written as a decimal:

$$\text{Aerobic zone} = \text{MaxHR} \times 0.60\ \text{to}\ \text{MaxHR} \times 0.80$$ $$\text{Anaerobic zone} = \text{MaxHR} \times 0.80\ \text{to}\ \text{MaxHR} \times 0.90$$

These are guides to training intensity, not an exact switch between energy systems. The zones share the 80% boundary.

Calculating and applying the zones

For a 16-year-old, estimated maximum heart rate is:

$$220 - 16 = 204\text{ bpm}$$

The aerobic lower threshold is $204 \times 0.60 = 122.4\text{ bpm}$ and its upper threshold is $204 \times 0.80 = 163.2\text{ bpm}$. The aerobic zone is therefore approximately 122–163 bpm, rounded to whole beats per minute.

The anaerobic zone starts at the same 80% boundary. Its upper threshold is $204 \times 0.90 = 183.6\text{ bpm}$, giving an approximate range of 163–184 bpm.

To apply a zone, compare the performer's training heart rate with both boundaries. For an aerobic endurance goal, working within the aerobic range supports the intended intensity. A heart rate below its lower threshold indicates that the work is below the prescribed aerobic zone; a rate above its upper threshold indicates a higher intensity than intended.

A higher zone is not automatically a better choice. Judge intensity against the training goal and the individual's ability to cope. If the purpose is sustained aerobic work, making every session harder may reduce its suitability and increase fatigue. Effective planning combines the calculated zone with specificity, individual needs, gradual progression and recovery.