Research and Political Key Terms

Investigating inequality with evidence

Sociologists use research—systematic investigation—to examine how society works rather than relying only on personal impressions. In the study of social stratification, research might investigate differences in income, people's experiences of disadvantage or the relationship between class and voting.

A hypothesis is a testable statement that evidence may support or refute. Suppose a researcher proposes that social class is associated with voting preference. They would need evidence about both respondents' class positions and their political preferences, rather than assuming the relationship exists. A respondent is someone who answers research questions.

The information used in research is data. Data analysis means making sense of that information: looking for patterns, comparing groups and drawing conclusions. A trend is a general direction of change over time. One difference between two groups at a single point in time is not, by itself, a trend.

Where data comes from and what form it takes

Primary data is collected first-hand for the researcher's investigation. Answers to a questionnaire they administer are primary data. Secondary data already exists and was originally collected by someone else. Published official statistics, newspaper reports and personal documents can provide secondary data.

A separate distinction concerns the form of the information. Quantitative data is numerical: for example, the number of respondents supporting a particular policy. Qualitative data is descriptive, such as an interview account explaining why someone supports it. Either form can be primary or secondary. An interview collected by the researcher may provide primary qualitative data; published numerical statistics provide secondary quantitative data.

Quantitative evidence helps researchers compare groups and identify broad patterns. Qualitative evidence can reveal meanings and experiences that fixed numerical categories miss. Neither is automatically better: the appropriate choice depends on the research question.

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative methods in one investigation. A survey could identify a pattern in voting preferences, followed by interviews exploring people's reasons. Triangulation means cross-checking qualitative findings against evidence from a quantitative method. Agreement can strengthen confidence in a conclusion; disagreement may reveal weaknesses in a method or different aspects of the issue.

Selecting people to study

Researchers often cannot study everyone in the population of interest. Instead, they select a sample, a smaller group drawn from that population. A sampling frame is a list from which people can be selected, such as an electoral register for a study of registered voters. If a list leaves out relevant people, the resulting sample may leave them out too.

A representative sample reflects the relevant characteristics of the wider population. An unrepresentative sample does not. For example, researching attitudes to inequality only among members of one political campaigning group would not adequately represent the views of all adults. This limits how confidently the findings can be generalised.

Different sampling methods select people in different ways:

• A random sample gives each member of the population an equal chance of selection. It does not mean simply approaching whoever happens to be nearby.
• A systematic sample takes every nth person from a sampling frame, such as every tenth name.
• A quota sample fills specified numbers in categories, such as age groups. The researcher selects people until each quota is complete.
• A snowball sample begins with participants who recommend others. It can help researchers reach people for whom no suitable list exists, such as people experiencing homelessness. However, people connected through the same networks may have similar experiences, limiting representativeness.

Sampling choices therefore affect whose experiences become visible in an account of inequality.

Asking questions and using census evidence

A survey gathers information using questionnaires or structured interviews, with standardised questions asked in the same order. An attitude survey investigates people's views or opinions, such as their attitudes towards inequality or government policy. A questionnaire uses a predetermined set of questions. A offers fixed answers, making responses easier to count and compare. An allows an answer in the 's own words, providing detail but taking longer to analyse.

For example, asking respondents to choose their preferred political party from a list produces comparable categories. Asking them to explain how they made their choice can reveal influences that the list does not capture.

A census aims to collect information about the whole population rather than selecting a sample and is normally conducted every ten years in the UK. The Office for National Statistics conducts the census in England and Wales through a questionnaire survey sent to every household. Published census statistics become secondary quantitative data for a sociologist using them to investigate social differences.

Official statistics can save researchers time and money and provide broad coverage. They can also help reveal changes over time. However, their categories were chosen for the original collection, so they may not fit a new research question. Statistics can identify patterns without explaining what those patterns mean to the people involved. Combining them with interviews can help address this limitation.

Interviews and group discussion

An interview involves a researcher asking questions directly. In an unstructured interview, the discussion is flexible rather than following a tightly controlled sequence. This allows respondents to explain experiences of unemployment or workplace inequality in depth, but conducting and analysing these conversations can require substantial time and resources.

A focus group brings several participants together to discuss a particular topic with a researcher. The researcher examines both their views and how they respond to one another. Suppose a focus group discusses experiences of workplace inequality: one participant's account might prompt others to describe similar experiences or challenge that interpretation.

This interaction can reveal a range of perspectives and help participants feel supported. Interviewing several people together may also save time. However, a confident participant can dominate the discussion, while others may agree publicly rather than express a different view. These influences can reduce validity. Sensitive topics also create a confidentiality problem: the researcher can protect recordings and reports but cannot guarantee that participants will keep one another's disclosures private.

Observing behaviour and everyday life

Observation involves watching and recording behaviour. In participant observation, the researcher joins the group's activities; in non-participant observation, they watch without taking part. Covert observation means people do not know they are being studied. These are different distinctions: participation concerns the researcher's role, while covert observation concerns people's awareness of the .

Ethnography is an in-depth study of a group's culture and everyday life, often using observation. It can help explain practices and relationships that are difficult to understand from questionnaire answers alone.

Studying cases, change and media material

A case study investigates a particular example in detail, such as one community or workplace. Its strength is depth: the researcher can explore how several influences connect in that setting. Its limitation is that one case may not reflect other communities or workplaces.

A longitudinal study follows the same group over an extended period. It can show how experiences change, rather than merely comparing different people at one moment. For example, following people's employment histories could help investigate changes in their circumstances. Participants dropping out can weaken the study, especially if those who leave differ from those who remain.

Content analysis examines documents or images by coding them into defined categories and counting how often themes occur. To study media portrayals of poverty, researchers could define categories for different portrayals, apply them consistently to a selected set of reports and compare their frequency. Clear categories help make the analysis consistent, but researchers must consider whether those categories capture the meaning of the material accurately.

Judging the quality of research

Three questions help evaluate evidence about stratification:

• Reliability: would repeating the research using the same methods produce consistent findings?
• Validity: does the research accurately measure what it intends to measure?
• Representativeness: does the sample reflect the wider population?

A questionnaire may be reliable because everyone receives the same questions, yet lack validity if the wording is misunderstood. Equally, detailed accounts from a small group may offer valuable insight without representing everyone's experience.

Bias is a systematic influence that distorts research or its findings. An interviewer could influence answers through their wording or reactions. Sample selection could also favour some viewpoints over others. Evaluation should explain how such a problem affects the conclusion, not merely label a method 'biased'.

Selective use of data means deciding which information to use and which to leave out. A researcher might reasonably focus on one subgroup of a sample to study its experiences in greater detail. However, selecting only evidence that supports a preferred conclusion and discarding contradictory findings creates a one-sided account. The purpose and effect of the selection therefore matter when judging bias.

Protecting people who take part

Ethical considerations concern participants' rights and welfare. Informed consent means people receive enough information about the research and their role to decide freely whether to participate. Consent should remain meaningful during the study, not become a one-off formality; participants should be able to withdraw.

Confidentiality means keeping participants' personal information private and not disclosing identifiable information outside the research team. This matters when discussing sensitive experiences such as financial hardship or conflict with an employer. Researchers should avoid reporting details that allow someone to be recognised and should anticipate possible psychological harm or damage to employment prospects.

Data protection concerns legal safeguards for personal data, especially information that can identify someone. In the UK, the UK GDPR and Data Protection Act 2018 govern its handling: researchers must use it fairly and lawfully for stated purposes, collect only what is necessary, keep it secure and retain it no longer than necessary. Participants also have a right to access personal data held about them, subject to legal exceptions. Confidentiality concerns keeping information private; data protection covers its lawful handling throughout the research.

Covert observation creates an ethical difficulty because participants cannot give informed consent to research they do not know is happening. Although concealment may reduce changes in behaviour caused by being watched, that possible benefit does not remove the need to consider people's rights and potential harm.

Representation, parties and elections

Political concepts help sociologists examine how different groups influence decisions. In a representative democracy, citizens elect people to make political decisions on their behalf. A constituency is an electoral area. Its voters elect a Member of Parliament (MP) to represent them in the House of Commons.

A political party is an organisation that seeks political power through elections, putting forward candidates and policies. Most candidates in UK general elections belong to parties such as Labour, the Conservatives or the Liberal Democrats. A party therefore differs from a pressure group: it seeks election to political office rather than only trying to influence office-holders.

The Prime Minister heads the UK government and normally leads the governing party. The Prime Minister selects ministers, who have responsibilities within government. An MP represents a constituency; being elected as an MP does not automatically make that person a government minister.

Under first past the post, the candidate with the most votes wins the constituency seat. Suppose three candidates receive different numbers of votes: the largest total wins, even if the other candidates together received more votes. The system selects a representative for that constituency; it does not require the winner to receive more than half of all votes cast.

Proportional representation allocates seats in proportion to votes received. For example, in a fully proportional allocation, a party receiving a quarter of the votes would receive a quarter of the seats. Supporters argue that this represents voters more fairly and gives smaller parties a better chance of gaining seats. The important distinction is between winning separate constituency contests and translating vote shares into seat shares.

Class and voting behaviour

Class alignment describes a strong relationship between social class and voting. The traditional British pattern associates working-class voters with Labour and middle-class voters with the Conservatives. This is a tendency, not a claim that every member of either class votes alike. Class dealignment means this relationship weakens, making class a less dependable guide to voting behaviour.

Political socialisation is the process through which people acquire political beliefs and preferences. Family, education and peers can influence this process: for example, family discussions may introduce someone to a party or a view about inequality. These influences help explain how political preferences develop, without making everyone's eventual vote inevitable.

Research can test class–voting patterns by collecting information about both class and voting preferences. Repeated surveys can show whether the association changes over time, while interviews can explore why people support particular parties.

Political ideas and forms of government

Left and right wing are broad labels for political ideas, parties and movements. Socialism and communism are associated with the left; conservatism is associated with the right. These labels describe broad groupings, not identical beliefs held by everyone within them.

Neo-liberalism favours free-market capitalism, fewer government restrictions on business (deregulation) and reduced government spending, giving markets a greater role than state provision. Neo-conservatism instead stresses preserving traditional values within society's norms and values. The New Right draws on both: it favours a smaller state and a larger role for markets, supports traditional values and criticises reliance on welfare benefits.

In debates about stratification, New Right theorists challenge Marxist accounts by stressing capitalism's benefits and opportunities for social mobility; Murray's claim that benefits encourage dependency is also associated with this viewpoint. These are contested arguments, not established outcomes: critics argue that Murray neglects economic causes of disadvantage and that many people he labels an underclass want paid work and stable relationships.

Socialism is a system in which productive resources, such as capital, land and factories, are owned by the community as a whole rather than by a few individuals. This makes ownership and the distribution of economic resources central to socialist ideas. Communism involves communal rather than individual ownership. Fascism is an extreme right-wing ideology associated with racism and nationalism. Conservatism and fascism should not be treated as interchangeable simply because both are placed on the right.

Political ideas also need to be distinguished from forms of government. In a dictatorship, power is concentrated in a dictator who rules through force. An oligarchy is control of a country or organisation by a small group of powerful people, usually furthering their own interests. It highlights the concentration of decision-making power rather than its wide distribution. A monarchy has a king or queen as head of state. Liberal democratic values include freedoms of speech, movement and information associated with representative democracy.

A nation state is a sovereign state associated with a shared sense of national identity. Shared nationality does not mean that everyone has the same cultural background or political views.

Campaigning and conflict over decisions

An interest group brings together people with a shared interest. A pressure group seeks to influence government policy or public opinion. For instance, a group campaigning on environmental issues may try to persuade decision-makers to change policy. Its aim is influence; whether it achieves that aim must be investigated.

A new social movement is a loosely organised movement seeking social change, often around issues such as animal rights, the environment or gay rights. Such movements may operate internationally rather than only within one country.

Direct action takes action directly on an issue, for example by occupying a building as part of a campaign. An industrial dispute is a conflict between employers and employees over matters such as pay, hours or working conditions. Both concepts can help describe struggles over whose interests shape decisions and how resources are distributed.

A trade union is an organisation of workers or employees that promotes and protects their interests. It can negotiate pay and conditions with employers and support members during workplace disputes. Collective representation gives workers a way to pursue shared concerns rather than each negotiating alone.

Privatisation means transferring government-owned assets into private ownership. It changes who owns and controls resources, making it relevant to the distribution of economic power. Private security provision is a related example of private involvement in services associated with public protection: G4S provided some security for the 2012 Olympics. Hiring a private provider is not itself proof that a government-owned asset has been transferred.

Competing views of political influence

Pluralism is the view that power is distributed among competing groups rather than permanently controlled by one group. Pluralists see pressure groups and social movements as ways for different interests to be heard. They argue that no group always gets its way and that the state should act as a neutral referee between competing interests.

The conflict view challenges this interpretation. It argues that groups do not have equal resources: large corporations may have more money, staff and access to decision-makers than disadvantaged groups. Marxists connect this political influence to the economic power of the bourgeoisie and argue that state policies tend to protect its interests.

The existence of many campaigning groups therefore does not, by itself, establish that power is equally distributed. A justified judgement needs evidence about access to decision-makers and whose demands influence policy. Pluralism helps explain competition and participation; the conflict view draws attention to inequalities that may limit how effective that participation is.

Media influence and control of information

The mass media communicates with large audiences through forms such as newspapers, television and the internet. Media gatekeepers, including owners, editors, journalists and programme controllers, influence what gets covered and how it is presented. Their choices can affect which experiences of inequality receive attention.

News values are media professionals' judgements about what is newsworthy. They influence which stories gatekeepers select and how prominently those stories appear. Studying them helps sociologists investigate why some accounts of inequality receive attention while others do not.

The popular press refers to tabloid or 'red top' newspapers such as The Sun and the Daily Mirror. The quality press offers more serious coverage of topics such as world news, economics and business. These categories distinguish types of newspaper coverage; the word 'quality' does not guarantee that a newspaper is unbiased.

Censorship is the control or suppression of information and ideas, often through government control of communication. Propaganda uses information to promote a particular view or cause, often through false or biased messages. A dictatorship may censor criticism while circulating propaganda that promotes its agenda: one restricts information, while the other tries to persuade.

Gatekeeping and censorship are also distinct: selecting material for publication is not automatically the same as suppressing information. Content analysis offers a way to investigate patterns in media coverage rather than assuming how a group is portrayed.