Analyzing the Physicality and Function of Material Remains

Nearby, the Treasury of Atreus functioned as a monumental burial site for high-status royalty. The builders used corbelling to create a massive, beehive-shaped dome built directly into a hillside, which acted as an earth buttress. The grand ceremonial entrance and the 120-ton monolithic lintel above the doorway were deliberate design choices to project wealth and prestige.

Material Remains of Mycenaean Daily Life

Understanding how an object was made often reveals exactly what it was meant to do. In Grave Circle A, the famous Mask of Agamemnon was created using repoussé, where gold was hammered from the reverse side to create a facial relief. Also found here (Shaft Grave IV) was the Lion Hunt Dagger, which used inlay techniques and a black metallic paste called niello. The visual content shows five hunters with spears and shields attacking three lions on Side A, while Side B depicts a lion chasing deer, reflecting martial values and Minoan artistic influence.

Administrative life is evidenced by Linear B Tablets found at the Palace of Nestor in Pylos. Made of damp clay, they were preserved when palace fires accidentally "fired" them. They come in two shapes: "palm-leaf" for single entries and "page" for detailed lists (e.g., Tablet 641 tracking equipment).

Pottery design was dictated by purpose. Stirrup jars featured a false neck to prevent spills and a handle for a secure grip. In contrast, the Warrior Vase was a large krater, featuring a wide mouth and deep bowl for diluting wine. Palace frescoes also provide evidence of status; the Boar Hunt Fresco (Tiryns Megaron) showcases hunting skills, while the Women in Chariot fresco, found in situ in the outer court, highlights the high social standing of royal women.

Greek Temples and Sacred Sites

Ancient architects used entasis (a slight swelling of columns) to correct optical illusions, making the Parthenon appear perfectly straight. Located on the Acropolis in Athens and built from Pentelic marble, it housed a 12-metre high chryselephantine statue of Athena in its cella. Its iconography was extensive:

• East Pediment: The birth of Athena from the head of Zeus.
• West Pediment: The contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens.
• Metopes: Panels depicting the Centauromachy (Lapiths vs. Centaurs), symbolising the triumph of Greek civilisation over "barbaric" chaos.

The Parthenon functioned as a votive offering and treasury. Its Ionic frieze, showing the Panathenaic Procession, was located high on the cella wall, suggesting it was an offering for the gods rather than human spectators.

In contrast, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia was built from local shelly limestone. Its East Pediment depicted the chariot race of Pelops, while its metopes showed the Twelve Labours of Heracles. By including local myths, such as the Augean Stables (cleaned by diverting the Alpheios River), the temple linked the Panhellenic site to local geography.

Analysing Greek Funerary and Votive Sculpture

The Grave Stele of Hegeso (Athens) is shaped like a naiskos and depicts a high-status woman seated on a klismos. She picks jewelry from a pyxis held by a servant, linking her memory to her role as the mistress of the oikos. Another funerary vessel, the Loutrophoros, was traditionally used for wedding ritual baths. When found as a grave marker, its elongated neck symbolised that the deceased was a woman who died before marriage.

Earlier art is represented by the Berlin Kore, a female statue found in Keratea (Attica) wearing a polos (cylindrical crown) and holding a pomegranate. She wears a heavy woollen peplos over a linen dress, draped with an epiblema. The statue shows traces of polychromy and was found wrapped in lead to protect it during the Persian invasion.

Roman Power, Propaganda, and Architecture

The Ara Pacis (Altar of Augustan Peace) was built on the Campus Martius, outside the pomerium. Its visual content promoted the "Golden Age" of Augustus:

• Tellus Panel: Goddess with infants and livestock, symbolising fertility and peace (Pax).
• Procession Panels: Identifiable members of the Imperial family, promoting dynastic stability and pietas (duty).
• Vegetal Frieze: Over 50 plant species, representing nature's abundance under Augustus.

Augustan monuments rejected Republican verism for Idealised Classicism. The Augustus of Prima Porta statue, found at the Villa of Livia, features a breastplate showing the return of Parthian standards, justifying military authority through diplomacy.

Roman architecture used engineering to project power. The Temple of Portunus, located in the Forum Boarium (Rome), is a pseudoperipteral structure, combining Greek Ionic columns with an Etruscan frontal staircase. Later, the Pantheon in the Campus Martius used a massive unreinforced concrete dome and a central oculus to create a vast rotunda, symbolising the reach of Roman gods.

Evaluating Roman Domestic Remains

Wealthy Romans lived in a domus (e.g., House of the Menander) designed for the salutatio, where patrons greeted clients. At the House of the Tragic Poet, the fauces (entrance) featured a "Beware of the Dog" mosaic. Most Romans lived in insulae, high-density blocks with ground-floor tabernae and upper floors lacking private water.

Feminine virtue was linked to wool-working. Women used a distaff to hold roving (unspun wool) and a spindle whorl for centrifugal force. On vertical looms, loom weights kept the warp (vertical threads) taut so the weft could be passed through. The phrase lanam fecit on a tombstone was the ultimate praise for domestic industry.

Summary Evaluation: Function and Design

Material Remain	Primary Function	Secondary Function	Impact on Creation
Linear B Tablets	Admin/Record keeping	None (Utilitarian)	Made of cheap clay; shapes dictated by length of entry.
Lion Hunt Dagger	Grave good (Status)	Martial propaganda	Use of expensive gold/niello and naturalistic lion scenes.
Loutrophoros	Ritual bath water	Funerary symbol	Elongated neck used as a symbolic marker for the unmarried.
Parthenon	Treasury/Offer	Imperial display	Massive scale to house the 12m chryselephantine statue.
Ara Pacis	Religious sacrifice	Dynastic propaganda	Luna marble used to reflect Augustus’ "City of Marble."