The Instrument of Government and the Major-Generals

The constitution attempted to balance power carefully:

• The Council of State: Consisting of 13 to 21 lifetime members, it acted as a direct check on the Protector's foreign policy and military control.
• A Single-Chamber Parliament: A Triennial Parliament of 460 seats was created, providing a unified representation for England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. It was required to sit for a minimum of five months before it could be dissolved.
• Finance: A fixed annual revenue of £200,000 was established for civil administration.
• Religious Settlement: Guaranteed Liberty of Conscience for most Protestants, allowing different sects to practice freely, but explicitly banned Catholicism and Anglican episcopacy.

Evaluating the Instrument of Government

While the Instrument was an effective attempt to provide a "king-like" stability without the risks of a hereditary monarchy, it ultimately failed to secure long-term support from the political classes.

The First Protectorate Parliament (1654) proved to be the system's greatest limitation. Instead of passing laws to govern the nation, MPs spent their entire session attacking the legality of the constitution itself. They refused to accept that the military (represented by the Council of State) should hold such significant checks over the legislature. Frustrated by this refusal to cooperate, Cromwell dissolved the Parliament in January 1655 at the earliest legal opportunity. This political deadlock showed that a written constitution alone could not force the traditional gentry to work with a military-backed regime.

Origins of the Rule of the Major-Generals

How do you govern a divided nation when traditional pardons fail and your army suffers mysterious defeats? By 1655, Oliver Cromwell faced two triggering events that shattered his confidence in political reconciliation.

First, Penruddock's Uprising in March 1655—a Royalist rebellion in Salisbury—proved that the 1652 Act of Oblivion (a pardon for former Royalists) was not securing peace. Second, the disastrous failure of the Western Design, a military invasion of Hispaniola, convinced Cromwell that God was actively punishing England for its moral failings.

In response, Cromwell divided England and Wales into 11 distinct military districts in October 1655. Each district was placed under the authority of Major-Generals, senior army officers like John Desborough in the South West and Charles Worsley in the North West. These regional governors bypassed traditional local authorities and worked with Cromwell's spymaster, John Thurloe, to dismantle secret Royalist networks, most notably the Sealed Knot.

The Decimation Tax and Moral Policing

Maintaining a standing army of 30,000 men and a new regional militia of 6,000 troops was incredibly expensive. To fund this without raising national taxes, the government introduced the Decimation Tax, a punitive 10% income levy specifically targeting the estates of known Royalists earning over £100 a year.

The formula for calculating this penalty was:

$\text{Annual Tax} = \text{Annual Estate Income} \times 0.10$

Worked Example

How much annual tax would a former Royalist pay if their estate generated an income of £350 per year?

Step 1: Identify the values and check the threshold condition.

• Estate income = £350 (This is greater than the £100 threshold, so the tax applies).
• Tax rate = $10\%$ or $0.10$

Step 2: Substitute into the equation.

• $\text{Annual Tax} = 350 \times 0.10$

Step 3: Calculate.

• $\text{Annual Tax} = £35$

Alongside military suppression, the Major-Generals enforced a strict Godly Reformation. This Puritan campaign aimed to cleanse the nation's morals by banning traditional entertainments like horse-racing, stage plays, and even Christmas celebrations. Local enforcement was notoriously harsh; in Chester, Major-General Charles Worsley shut down 200 alehouses and successfully disarmed approximately 10,000 Royalists.

Evaluating the Failure of Military Rule

The Major-Generals faced immense political resentment from local Justices of the Peace (JPs) and the gentry. These local elites, who considered themselves the "natural rulers," viewed the Major-Generals as low-born "swordsmen" imposing a military dictatorship. Socially, the "killjoy" reputation for closing alehouses alienated the ordinary population, making the regime deeply unpopular across all classes.

The system's ultimate failure was sealed in Parliament. During the 1656 elections, voters rallied against the regime with the slogan "No Decimators!". In January 1657, Major-General John Desborough introduced the Militia Bill to make the Decimation Tax permanent. Parliament decisively defeated the bill by 124 votes to 88. This rejection demonstrated the fundamental Power of the Purse—without parliamentary approval for taxation, the military districts could not be funded. The collapse of this system led directly to the Humble Petition and Advice (1657).