Cromwell and the Parliaments (1649–1658)

The politicians blocked attempts by the army to grant religious toleration or simplify the legal system. Furthermore, the army was extremely expensive; supporting 70,000 soldiers required crippling taxes, breeding public resentment. The final breaking point was the Perpetuation Bill, which Cromwell feared would allow existing politicians to hold onto power indefinitely without facing democratic re-election. In April 1653, Cromwell marched into the chamber with musketeers, removed the symbolic Mace, and dissolved the government by force.

The Nominated Assembly (July–December 1653)

When elections fail to produce the right results, military leaders sometimes choose the government themselves. Following the coup, Cromwell and his officers hand-picked 140 men to form the Nominated Assembly (often mockingly called Barebone's Parliament).

• Despite its reputation for radicalism, about four-fifths of the selected men belonged to the traditional landowning gentry.
• The group was intensely divided between moderates and radicals, such as the Fifth Monarchists, who demanded extreme religious and legal overhauls.
• Radicals pushed to abolish the Court of Chancery and end tithes completely, which terrified the moderates who saw this as a direct attack on property rights and the social order.

By December 1653, the internal divisions became unworkable. While the radical members were attending a prayer meeting, the moderates met early and officially surrendered their authority back to Cromwell, ending the assembly.

The Protectorate and First Protectorate Parliament (1653–1655)

To prevent total political collapse, England adopted its first and only written constitution. Drafted by Major-General John Lambert, the Instrument of Government created a new system called the Protectorate. Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector for life, sharing power with a Council of State and a single-chamber parliament.

• The new system was designed to enforce stability, but it immediately clashed with republican politicians known as Commonwealthmen.
• These republicans believed parliament should hold ultimate supreme power, not a "Single Person" executive.
• In response, Cromwell forced members to sign a loyalty oath called the Recognition; 100 politicians refused and were kicked out.

The First Protectorate Parliament was a complete legislative failure. Instead of passing any of the 84 bills Cromwell had prepared, they spent their time arguing over the constitution itself, and ultimately passed zero laws. Frustrated by this stagnation, Cromwell exploited a loophole in the constitution and dissolved the body after exactly five lunar months (140 days) rather than calendar months.

The Rule of the Major-Generals and the Second Parliament (1655–1657)

Following a royalist rebellion, Cromwell abandoned civilian administration and divided the country into 11 military districts. Each area was governed by Major-Generals, who enforced strict moral codes by banning traditional sports, closing alehouses, and policing public behavior.

• This military state was funded by the Decimation Tax, a punishing 10% income levy placed specifically on known Royalists.
• When Cromwell called the Second Protectorate Parliament in 1656 to fund a war against Spain, the politicians used their financial power to strike back.
• They voted down the Militia Bill, which would have made the punishing tax permanent, effectively forcing an end to military rule.

During this session, parliament spent weeks harshly prosecuting a Quaker named James Nayler. This horrified Cromwell, as it violated his principle of Liberty of Conscience and proved that a single parliamentary chamber could act as a ruthless tyrant. To solve this, politicians offered Cromwell the Humble Petition and Advice in 1657, a civilian-led constitution that proposed a second parliamentary chamber to keep the Commons in check.

Analyzing the Pattern of Failure

Throughout the 1650s, Cromwell's relationship with successive parliaments followed a consistent cycle of breakdown. You can analyze this failure by comparing his two deeply incompatible goals:

Goal	Description	Why it caused friction
"Healing and Settling"	Returning the nation to stability, law and order, and traditional social hierarchies after years of civil war.	Required working with the conservative gentry and lawyers, who hated the army's power and high taxes.
"Godly Reformation"	Pushing for radical religious toleration, moral reform, and a fairer legal system.	Terrified the wealthy elites who dominated parliament, as they believed abolishing tithes and traditional laws would lead to anarchy.

Every legislative body Cromwell worked with leaned too far in one direction. The Rump was too conservative, the Nominated Assembly was too radical, and the Protectorate Parliaments were too obsessed with their own constitutional supremacy. Ultimately, the military's demand for radical reform could never be reconciled with the civilian desire for a return to traditional, inexpensive government.