OCR GCSE History A (J410) — British Depth Studies
In any alliance, fighting a common enemy is often easier than agreeing on what to do once the war is won. Between 1644 and 1646, the alliance that defeated Charles I began to fracture into two distinct factions: the "Doves" and the "Hawks".
This political divide was deepened by religious tensions, an era OCR describes as "The World Turned Upside Down" due to the radical social upheaval. The Presbyterians had signed the Solemn League and Covenant in 1643, promising the Scots a national, state-run church governed by a hierarchy of elders. They strongly opposed religious toleration for radical sects.
Conversely, the Independents advocated for a gathered church system, where individual congregations remained independent of state control. To break the Presbyterian military leadership, the Independents pushed through the Self-Denying Ordinance in April 1645. This forced conservative commanders like the Earl of Manchester and the Earl of Essex to resign, paving the way for the radical New Model Army, with Oliver Cromwell uniquely allowed to retain both his military and parliamentary roles.
How do you negotiate with a defeated king who believes he answers only to God? As Parliament and the Army presented competing peace settlements, Charles I played them against each other.
| Feature | Newcastle Propositions (1646) | Heads of the Proposals (1647) |
|---|---|---|
| Authors | Presbyterian-dominated Parliament |
| Independent-leaning Army (drafted by Henry Ireton) |
| Religion | King must sign the Covenant; strict Presbyterian church for 3 years. | More lenient; bishops remain but cannot punish non-conformists. |
| Military | Parliament controls the militia for 20 years. | Parliament controls the army for 10 years. |
| Politics | Highly restrictive on Royalists. | Required biennial Parliaments. |
By 1647, tensions reached a breaking point. The Presbyterian Parliament attempted to disband the New Model Army without paying their £3 million in wage arrears. In response, the Army seized Charles at Holmby House, marched on London, and forced out eleven leading Presbyterian MPs.
Charles cemented his reputation for untrustworthiness by secretly signing The Engagement with the Scottish Covenanters in December 1647. This sparked the Second Civil War in 1648. After Cromwell's decisive victory over the Scots at the Battle of Preston, the Army concluded that Charles was a Man of Blood. They believed their victory was Providence, a sign that God had judged the King and that negotiation must be replaced by justice.
On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted 129 to 83 to continue the Newport Treaty negotiations with the King. The Army viewed this as a devastating betrayal. High-ranking officers known as Grandees, alongside radical soldier representatives called Agitators, took immediate action. The Remonstrance of the Army, drafted by Henry Ireton in November 1648, had already demanded the King be brought to justice as the "capital and grand author of our troubles."
On 6 December 1648, Pride's Purge took place. Colonel Thomas Pride excluded between 140 and 186 MPs and arrested 45 others. The remaining group of roughly 80 MPs became known as the Rump Parliament, marking the only successful military coup d'état in English history and ensuring the King's trial could proceed.
On 6 January 1649, after the House of Lords refused to participate, the Rump Parliament created the High Court of Justice. The trial took place at Westminster Hall from 20 to 27 January. Charles was charged as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy." He refused to enter a plea, arguing that the court had no legal authority and claiming the Divine Right of kings made him answerable only to God.
On 30 January 1649, Charles was executed outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall. Ultimately, 59 commissioners signed his death warrant, becoming known as the Regicides.
Historians debate whether the execution of Charles I was an inevitable outcome of the Civil War.
Balanced Judgement: The execution was not an inevitable consequence of the first war. However, it became practically inevitable once Charles restarted the conflict via The Engagement. This act destroyed his political credibility and radicalised the Army to the point where they felt "providentially" mandated to remove him, eventually requiring a military coup to silence the moderate majority who still favoured a compromise.
The transition from a monarchy to a republic was not a popular uprising, but a structured legal dismantling engineered by the Rump Parliament.
The Process of Transition (1648–1649):
Executive power was handed to a 41-member Council of State. However, the Rump remained entirely dependent on the New Model Army, leading to constant tension between the legal government and the military force that created it.
Students often assume the execution of the King was a popular, nationwide demand, but it was actually pushed by a radical minority (the Army and the Rump Parliament) against the wishes of the general public and many MPs.
In 'Evaluate' questions about the inevitability of Charles's execution, you must weigh his untrustworthiness (The Engagement) against the fact that Parliament was still voting to negotiate just before Pride's Purge.
Make sure you can clearly distinguish between political Presbyterians (MPs who wanted peace with the King) and religious Presbyterians (those who wanted a specific Scottish-style church system).
Use the specific term 'Providence' when explaining why the New Model Army shifted from wanting to negotiate with Charles to demanding his trial after the Second Civil War.
Presbyterians
A faction in the Long Parliament favouring a state-run church based on the Scottish model and a conservative compromise with the King.
Independents
A political and religious faction favouring religious toleration for non-conformists and total military victory over Charles I.
Gathered church
An independent religious congregation that is free from state or central church hierarchy.
Self-Denying Ordinance
A 1645 law requiring MPs and Lords to resign military commissions, allowing for professionalised leadership in the New Model Army.
Solemn League and Covenant
A 1643 agreement where the Scots provided military aid to Parliament in exchange for the promise of a Presbyterian church system.
New Model Army
A professional, radicalised military force created by Parliament in 1645.
The Engagement
A secret 1647 treaty between Charles I and the Scottish Covenanters that restarted the Civil War.
Man of Blood
A biblical term used by the Army to describe Charles I, holding him personally responsible for the deaths in the Civil Wars.
Providence
The belief that events are guided by God; the Army believed their victory at Preston was God's judgment against the King.
Grandees
High-ranking New Model Army officers, such as Cromwell and Ireton, who were politically radical but socially conservative.
Agitators
Elected representatives of the rank-and-file soldiers in the New Model Army.
Pride's Purge
A 1648 military coup where the Army forcibly removed MPs who wanted to continue negotiating with the King.
Rump Parliament
The radical remnant of the Long Parliament that ruled England after Pride's Purge.
High Court of Justice
A special court created by the Rump Parliament in 1649 specifically to try Charles I for treason.
Divine Right
The belief that a monarch’s authority comes directly from God, making them immune to earthly judgment.
Regicides
The 59 commissioners who signed the death warrant of King Charles I.
Commonwealth
The official title of the English Republic established in 1649 after the abolition of the monarchy.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History A
Presbyterians
A faction in the Long Parliament favouring a state-run church based on the Scottish model and a conservative compromise with the King.
Independents
A political and religious faction favouring religious toleration for non-conformists and total military victory over Charles I.
Gathered church
An independent religious congregation that is free from state or central church hierarchy.
Self-Denying Ordinance
A 1645 law requiring MPs and Lords to resign military commissions, allowing for professionalised leadership in the New Model Army.
Solemn League and Covenant
A 1643 agreement where the Scots provided military aid to Parliament in exchange for the promise of a Presbyterian church system.
New Model Army
A professional, radicalised military force created by Parliament in 1645.
The Engagement
A secret 1647 treaty between Charles I and the Scottish Covenanters that restarted the Civil War.
Man of Blood
A biblical term used by the Army to describe Charles I, holding him personally responsible for the deaths in the Civil Wars.
Providence
The belief that events are guided by God; the Army believed their victory at Preston was God's judgment against the King.
Grandees
High-ranking New Model Army officers, such as Cromwell and Ireton, who were politically radical but socially conservative.
Agitators
Elected representatives of the rank-and-file soldiers in the New Model Army.
Pride's Purge
A 1648 military coup where the Army forcibly removed MPs who wanted to continue negotiating with the King.
Rump Parliament
The radical remnant of the Long Parliament that ruled England after Pride's Purge.
High Court of Justice
A special court created by the Rump Parliament in 1649 specifically to try Charles I for treason.
Divine Right
The belief that a monarch’s authority comes directly from God, making them immune to earthly judgment.
Regicides
The 59 commissioners who signed the death warrant of King Charles I.
Commonwealth
The official title of the English Republic established in 1649 after the abolition of the monarchy.
