OCR GCSE History A (J410) — Non-British Depth Studies
While earlier resistance movements focused heavily on changing laws, a new generation in the late 1960s realised that true freedom had to start in the mind. After the government banned the ANC and PAC in 1960, a political vacuum stifled anti-apartheid resistance.
To break this silence, black university students formed the SASO (South African Students' Organisation) in 1969. Led by Steve Biko, these students explicitly broke away from multiracial student unions because they felt white liberals dominated the leadership. Biko argued that black South Africans had to lead their own struggle to achieve genuine self-reliance.
To expand these ideas beyond university campuses, activists established the Black People's Convention (BPC) in 1972. This organisation successfully spread the movement's philosophy to the wider black community, marking a shift towards completely independent, black-led resistance structures.
The core philosophy driving this new era of resistance was Black Consciousness (BC). It was not just a political stance, but a way of life that urged black South Africans to take immense pride in their culture, history, and identity.
Steve Biko popularised the concept of psychological liberation. He taught that the apartheid state maintained control by forcing black people to internalise feelings of inferiority. Before physical chains could be broken, Biko argued that black people had to defeat this "inferiority complex" and realise that "Black is Beautiful".
The state quickly recognised the immense threat posed by a psychologically liberated population. Biko was given a banning order in 1973, restricting his movements and speech, and was eventually murdered in police custody in 1977. His brutal death provoked massive international outrage and exposed the extreme violence of the National Party government.
Despite state repression, Black Consciousness ideas rapidly infiltrated secondary schools. When the government decreed in 1974 that half of all lessons must be taught in Afrikaans, school students violently rejected the policy. This culminated in the 1976 Soweto Uprising, where police killed unarmed students. This event radicalised an entire generation, pushing thousands to join armed resistance movements in exile.
You might expect political parties to lead a revolution, but in 1970s South Africa, a massive threat to the state emerged directly from the factory floor. In January 1973, workers at the Coronation Brick and Tile factory in Durban walked out over extreme poverty and wages that fell below the minimum survival threshold.
This triggered the 1973 Durban Workers’ Strike, a wave of spontaneous wildcat strikes that rapidly spread across the city. By March, up to 100,000 workers across 150 factories had joined the protests. Because the strikes lacked a centralised leadership, the police struggled to identify and arrest "agitators".
These strikes proved that the entire South African economy was totally dependent on black labour. The white capitalist elite were severely shaken by this use of the "economic weapon" and pressured the government to stabilise the industrial sector.
The sheer scale of the 1973 strikes forced the government to rethink its strategy of pure repression. They established the Wiehahn Commission, an inquiry that ultimately recommended bringing black labour under state regulation.
This led to the 1979 Labour Relations Act, which officially recognised black trade unions for the first time. This legal protection allowed for the massive expansion of organised labour, leading to the creation of powerful national bodies like FOSATU (Federation of South African Trade Unions) and later COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions).
Female activists played a foundational role in this explosion of labour resistance. In the Pinetown textile factories, where women made up 80% of the workforce and suffered severe wage discrimination, leaders like June-Rose Nala instigated crucial strikes and later led major national unions.
Other key figures included Emma Mashinini, who founded a union specifically to fight the exploitation of shop workers, and Harriet Bolton, who provided vital legal and organisational hubs for radical workers in Durban. This convergence of radical activism and worker militancy became known as the Durban Moment.
Alongside workplace activism, female leaders forged powerful community resistance structures. Formed in 1975 under the leadership of Fatima Meer, the Black Women’s Federation (BWF) acted as a national umbrella organisation for dozens of regional groups.
Unlike 1950s women's groups which were multiracial, the BWF was strictly aligned with Black Consciousness and exclusively represented African, Indian, and Coloured women. The BWF focused on the concept of triple oppression, fighting against the combined burdens of racial segregation, economic class exploitation, and patriarchal gender discrimination.
Despite operating for only a short time before being banned on Black Wednesday in October 1977, the BWF provided essential survival infrastructure. They funded childcare in townships, supported squatter camps, and provided welfare during the 1976 Soweto Uprising.
When assessing the challenge posed to the apartheid state in the 1970s, historians weigh the distinct impacts of labour resistance and community organisations.
| Feature | Trade Unions | Women's Groups (BWF) |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Threat | Wielded the "economic weapon" to halt industrial production and damage the state's finances. | Provided the "social glue" and welfare infrastructure that allowed communities to survive state repression. |
| Scale and Base | Mobilised massive numbers on the factory floor (e.g., half the African workforce in Durban). | Often led by a smaller group of professionals, but reached deeply into vulnerable squatter camps. |
| Long-Term Impact | Forced institutional reform, securing legal recognition via the Wiehahn Commission. | Achieved vital psychological liberation at a community level, though rapidly suppressed by state banning orders. |
Ultimately, trade unions possessed the economic leverage required to force legal concessions from the white government. However, women's groups provided the essential social resilience and psychological foundation that sustained the broader anti-apartheid struggle during its darkest periods.
Students often confuse the Black Consciousness Movement with the ANC. Remember that the ANC historically favoured a multiracial approach, whereas the BCM in the 1970s exclusively championed black leadership.
When asked to evaluate the significance of resistance in the 1970s, examiners expect you to compare the 'economic weapon' of the trade unions against the social and psychological resilience built by women's groups.
OCR mark schemes frequently award high marks to students who explain that the BCM was a major threat because it focused on liberating minds rather than just challenging laws.
Use the specific statistic of '100,000 workers' participating in the 1973 Durban strikes to provide concrete, quantitative evidence of the sheer scale of labour resistance.
SASO (South African Students' Organisation)
A student-led organisation founded in 1969 by Steve Biko that restricted its membership to black, Indian, and Coloured students to promote self-reliance.
Black People's Convention (BPC)
An organisation formed in 1972 designed to spread the ideology of Black Consciousness beyond university students to the wider community.
Black Consciousness (BC)
A political philosophy that encouraged black South Africans to take pride in their identity and rely on themselves, rather than white liberals, to dismantle apartheid.
Psychological liberation
The process of black individuals freeing themselves from the internalised feelings of inferiority caused by white supremacy.
1973 Durban Workers’ Strike
A massive wave of spontaneous industrial action involving up to 100,000 workers protesting extreme poverty and low wages.
Wildcat strike
A sudden strike action undertaken by workers without the official authorisation or advanced notice of union leadership.
Wiehahn Commission
A government inquiry established in the late 1970s that recommended the legal recognition and regulation of black trade unions.
FOSATU (Federation of South African Trade Unions)
A major national trade union federation formed in 1979 that focused on democratic worker control on the factory floor.
COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions)
A powerful trade union federation formed in 1985 that became a central pillar of the anti-apartheid mass democratic struggle.
Durban Moment
A historical term describing the powerful convergence of radical intellectual activism, Black Consciousness, and worker militancy in the early 1970s.
Black Women’s Federation (BWF)
A national umbrella organisation founded in 1975 to unite black women against apartheid through community welfare and Black Consciousness.
Triple oppression
The concept that black South African women faced overlapping discrimination based on their race, their economic class, and their gender.
Black Wednesday
The day on 19 October 1977 when the apartheid government banned 18 Black Consciousness organisations, including the BWF.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History A
SASO (South African Students' Organisation)
A student-led organisation founded in 1969 by Steve Biko that restricted its membership to black, Indian, and Coloured students to promote self-reliance.
Black People's Convention (BPC)
An organisation formed in 1972 designed to spread the ideology of Black Consciousness beyond university students to the wider community.
Black Consciousness (BC)
A political philosophy that encouraged black South Africans to take pride in their identity and rely on themselves, rather than white liberals, to dismantle apartheid.
Psychological liberation
The process of black individuals freeing themselves from the internalised feelings of inferiority caused by white supremacy.
1973 Durban Workers’ Strike
A massive wave of spontaneous industrial action involving up to 100,000 workers protesting extreme poverty and low wages.
Wildcat strike
A sudden strike action undertaken by workers without the official authorisation or advanced notice of union leadership.
Wiehahn Commission
A government inquiry established in the late 1970s that recommended the legal recognition and regulation of black trade unions.
FOSATU (Federation of South African Trade Unions)
A major national trade union federation formed in 1979 that focused on democratic worker control on the factory floor.
COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions)
A powerful trade union federation formed in 1985 that became a central pillar of the anti-apartheid mass democratic struggle.
Durban Moment
A historical term describing the powerful convergence of radical intellectual activism, Black Consciousness, and worker militancy in the early 1970s.
Black Women’s Federation (BWF)
A national umbrella organisation founded in 1975 to unite black women against apartheid through community welfare and Black Consciousness.
Triple oppression
The concept that black South African women faced overlapping discrimination based on their race, their economic class, and their gender.
Black Wednesday
The day on 19 October 1977 when the apartheid government banned 18 Black Consciousness organisations, including the BWF.
