OCR GCSE Classical Civilisation (J199) — Roman City Life
How do you convince an empire that you are both a peacemaker and a military conqueror? Augustan iconography presents conflicting interpretations that historians must carefully evaluate. The Augustus of Prima Porta (a 1st-century AD marble copy) uses an Adlocutio pose to depict the emperor as a military commander. The central breastplate scene shows a Parthian returning a Roman standard, framing his military leadership as a diplomatic victory that secures the Pax Romana.
Simultaneously, the statue promotes a religious interpretation of his rule. The bare feet suggest a heroic or divine status, while the Cupid riding a dolphin links him directly to the goddess Venus. Scholars debate whether this indicates posthumous deification or contemporary propaganda.
The Ara Pacis Augustae (13–9 BC) presents similar evaluative challenges. The mythological panels of Aeneas and Roma suggest a return to natural fertility and universal peace. Conversely, the north and south friezes depict the imperial family modelling Pietas; this acts as a subtle dynastic message, signalling that power would become hereditary.
The famous Roman city of Pompeii was not originally Roman at all. Archaeological evidence reveals three distinct developmental phases. Between the 6th century and 89 BC, it was an Oscan/Samnite settlement where inscriptions used the Oscan script. Wealthy homes, like the House of the Faun, already showed Greek influence, but the settlement maintained a non-Roman identity.
During the Social War (91–88 BC), Pompeii rebelled against Rome. Physical evidence of Sulla’s siege remains in the form of slingshot bullets and siege damage to the walls. Following this, Sulla established Pompeii as a Roman colony in 80 BC.
Romanisation is clearly visible in the architectural and linguistic shift. The Romans constructed the Amphitheatre (the oldest surviving stone amphitheatre) specifically for new colonists and transformed the existing Temple of Jupiter into a Capitolium for the Roman Triad. Latin entirely replaced Oscan as the official language of governance.
Understanding the layout of a Roman house explains how citizens carefully managed their public reputation alongside their private luxury. Roman housing physically separated public business from private life. The Atrium was used to project the owner's public persona, while the Peristyle offered a secluded space for leisure. The Tablinum often served as an office dividing these two zones.
The House of Menander in Pompeii spans 1,830 square metres and reflects high social status through its private bath suite and Corinthian columns. A stone bench outside accommodated clients waiting for the morning greeting, while internal frescoes of the Greek playwright Menander advertised the owner's cultural literacy. Domestic religion was also central to the home, with the Paterfamilias leading worship of the Lares at the household Lararium.
Social aspiration is evident in properties like the House of Octavius Quartio. The owner attempted to recreate a country villa within an urban plot, installing a T-shaped canal (euripus) and a summer Triclinium. The muddled mix of mythological frescoes suggests a "nouveau riche" owner attempting to display cultural sophistication.
In a typical Roman city, a sprawling luxury mansion might sit on the exact same street as a cramped, dangerous apartment block. While the elite lived in spacious domus properties, most urban populations lived in multi-storey blocks called insulae. The Insula of Diana in Ostia (c. 150 AD) was built using brick-faced concrete and featured a ground-floor Taberna. This specific insula was equipped with shared latrines and a central courtyard for light, and the presence of a shrine to Mithras suggests it housed middle-class professionals.
However, these structures lacked internal water supplies, making the narrow upper floors highly dangerous during fires. Cheaper insulae were built using Opus craticium, a highly flammable and unstable timber frame filled with rubble.
Just like modern election campaigns, Roman politicians used highly visible public spending and posters to win votes. The Forum served as the hub of civic life, containing the Curia for town council meetings and the Basilica for law and finance. Governance was managed by magistrates: senior Duoviri handled justice and finance, while junior Aediles oversaw streets and markets.
Politicians gained Auctoritas through "evergetism" (civic benefaction). The Large Theatre inscription reveals that Marcus Holconius Rufus funded major renovations to secure political prestige. Similarly, the Prescribed Source known as the Senator’s Inscription records an elite Roman's Cursus honorum (Quaestor, Aedile, Praetor, Consul). This demonstrates how the Senatorial class derived their Dignitas purely from state service rather than commercial wealth.
Imagine walking through a modern city without seeing any advertising or graffiti—Roman streets were just as heavily covered in messages as ours today. Walls were coated in Dipinti, which were professional election posters supporting candidates. Alongside these were spontaneous Graffiti scratched into plaster, offering insight into the daily lives of non-elite citizens. Examples include declarations of love and specific references to gladiatorial combatants like the "Thraex".
Archaeological evidence proves that social mobility was possible for a Libertus (freedman). The Tomb of Naevoleia Tyche features reliefs of a ship to display maritime wealth and a Bisellium to highlight her family's social standing. Her husband served as an Augustalis, a prestigious imperial priesthood that offered a pathway to influence for those legally barred from holding political magistracies.
Students often describe the Augustus of Prima Porta purely as military propaganda; you must evaluate both its military breastplate and its divine iconography (bare feet, Cupid) for a balanced judgement.
In 15-mark evaluation questions regarding Augustan art, examiners expect you to weigh conflicting interpretations and reach a concluding judgement based on the cultural need for stability and religious authority (Pietas).
When analysing the Romanisation of Pompeii, ensure you explicitly cite the shift from Oscan to Latin inscriptions and the introduction of Roman building types like the Amphitheatre.
Contrast specific case studies, such as the private luxury of the House of Menander against the shared latrines of the Insula of Diana, to effectively demonstrate urban wealth disparity.
Adlocutio
The pose of a Roman commander addressing his troops, symbolising military leadership and authority.
Pax Romana
The long period of relative peace, stability, and prosperity established across the empire under Augustus.
Cupid
The son of Venus, often depicted in Augustan art to symbolise Augustus' divine lineage and his naval victory at Actium.
Pietas
The Roman virtue of duty, devotion, and loyalty to the gods, the state, and the family.
Capitolium
A major temple dedicated to the Roman Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), representing Roman religious dominance in a colony.
Atrium
The formal entrance hall of a Roman house, used for managing public business and receiving clients.
Peristyle
An internal colonnaded garden in a Roman house, acting as a symbol of luxury and a space for private leisure.
Tablinum
The study or office of the head of the household, traditionally separating the public atrium from the private peristyle.
Paterfamilias
The male head of a Roman household who held absolute legal authority and led domestic religious worship.
Lares
The household gods worshipped at domestic shrines to protect the home and family.
Lararium
A dedicated domestic shrine where daily offerings were made to the household gods.
Triclinium
A formal Roman dining room traditionally featuring three couches for reclining during meals.
Taberna
A single-room shop typically facing the street, often found on the ground floor of apartment blocks.
Opus craticium
A cheap, unstable, and highly flammable Roman building technique using a timber frame filled with rubble.
Duoviri
The two senior magistrates in a Roman town responsible for justice, finance, and presiding over the town council.
Aediles
Junior magistrates in a Roman town responsible for maintaining streets, markets, and public games.
Auctoritas
The moral and social influence, authority, or political prestige held by a Roman leader.
Cursus honorum
The structured, sequential order of public and military offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman state.
Dignitas
A Roman citizen's personal influence, reputation, and moral worth within society, often tied to political service.
Dipinti
Professionally painted public notices, often used for election campaigns or official announcements.
Graffiti
Informal inscriptions scratched directly into wall plaster, offering a glimpse into private, everyday thoughts.
Libertus
A former slave who has been freed and gained limited rights as a Roman citizen.
Bisellium
A double-width seat of honour granted to prominent individuals at public games or events.
Augustalis
A priesthood, usually held by wealthy freedmen, dedicated to the cult of the Emperor to gain social prestige.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for Classical Civilisation
Adlocutio
The pose of a Roman commander addressing his troops, symbolising military leadership and authority.
Pax Romana
The long period of relative peace, stability, and prosperity established across the empire under Augustus.
Cupid
The son of Venus, often depicted in Augustan art to symbolise Augustus' divine lineage and his naval victory at Actium.
Pietas
The Roman virtue of duty, devotion, and loyalty to the gods, the state, and the family.
Capitolium
A major temple dedicated to the Roman Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), representing Roman religious dominance in a colony.
Atrium
The formal entrance hall of a Roman house, used for managing public business and receiving clients.
Peristyle
An internal colonnaded garden in a Roman house, acting as a symbol of luxury and a space for private leisure.
Tablinum
The study or office of the head of the household, traditionally separating the public atrium from the private peristyle.
Paterfamilias
The male head of a Roman household who held absolute legal authority and led domestic religious worship.
Lares
The household gods worshipped at domestic shrines to protect the home and family.
Lararium
A dedicated domestic shrine where daily offerings were made to the household gods.
Triclinium
A formal Roman dining room traditionally featuring three couches for reclining during meals.
Taberna
A single-room shop typically facing the street, often found on the ground floor of apartment blocks.
Opus craticium
A cheap, unstable, and highly flammable Roman building technique using a timber frame filled with rubble.
Duoviri
The two senior magistrates in a Roman town responsible for justice, finance, and presiding over the town council.
Aediles
Junior magistrates in a Roman town responsible for maintaining streets, markets, and public games.
Auctoritas
The moral and social influence, authority, or political prestige held by a Roman leader.
Cursus honorum
The structured, sequential order of public and military offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman state.
Dignitas
A Roman citizen's personal influence, reputation, and moral worth within society, often tied to political service.
Dipinti
Professionally painted public notices, often used for election campaigns or official announcements.
Graffiti
Informal inscriptions scratched directly into wall plaster, offering a glimpse into private, everyday thoughts.
Libertus
A former slave who has been freed and gained limited rights as a Roman citizen.
Bisellium
A double-width seat of honour granted to prominent individuals at public games or events.
Augustalis
A priesthood, usually held by wealthy freedmen, dedicated to the cult of the Emperor to gain social prestige.
