Human Impact on Glaciated Landscapes

An inherited landscape that is still changing

Glaciated uplands are areas of high land shaped by glaciers in the past. Human activity changes these landscapes today, even though the glaciers that formed them have gone. Changes include removing vegetation, planting forests, constructing buildings and flooding valleys for reservoirs.

Low temperatures, heavy rainfall, steep slopes and thin, infertile soils make uplands challenging places to live and work. These conditions also influence how human activity affects physical processes. On steep slopes, exposed soil can be washed downhill by rainwater. Vegetation helps protect the soil: leaves and stems shelter the surface, while roots help hold it together. Changing this protective cover can therefore change the rate of erosion.

Farming: grazing and the protection of soil

Sheep farming is common because steep slopes and poor soils limit crop production. Some cattle can graze on the flatter, lower valley floors. Grass may also be grown for hay or silage to feed livestock.

Grazing does not always cause severe damage. The important distinction is whether enough vegetation remains to protect the soil. If too many animals graze an area, they remove plants faster than they can regrow. This is overgrazing. With less protective vegetation, soil becomes more exposed to rain and flowing water, increasing soil erosion. Soil washed into streams can also reduce water quality.

Clearing trees and other vegetation to create grazing land removes habitats as well as protection against erosion. Overgrazing can further reduce the habitat and food available to wildlife. Farming therefore affects both physical processes and living communities.

These changes can have lasting consequences because upland soils are already thin. The problem is not simply that the hillside looks less green: material is being removed from the landscape.

Forestry: planting and felling have different effects

Coniferous trees are planted in upland areas to produce timber. They grow relatively quickly and can be harvested repeatedly, providing jobs and income.

Planting trees can reduce soil erosion by increasing vegetation cover and helping to hold soil in place. However, felling trees removes that protection and can leave the ground more exposed to erosion. The effect of forestry therefore depends partly on whether trees are being established, maintained or harvested.

Commercial coniferous plantations often support a limited variety of species. Felling also removes habitats for plants and animals. A plantation can consequently protect soil while still having disadvantages for biodiversity and the appearance of the landscape. Not all environmental effects point in the same direction.

Settlement: building on a difficult surface

Settlements in glaciated uplands tend to be small and dispersed. Isolated farmhouses and small villages are often found in valleys, where flatter ground makes building and access easier. Steep, rocky terrain makes buildings, roads and services such as power supplies difficult to construct.

Construction changes the landscape directly: ground is excavated, vegetation is cleared and natural surfaces are replaced by buildings and roads. Where protective vegetation is removed, exposed soil is more vulnerable to erosion. Settlement therefore affects physical processes as well as the visual character of a valley.

Tourism can increase demand for holiday cottages and second homes. Some farmers also sell land for housing when farming becomes less profitable. These changes can extend development into previously farmed land. Holiday accommodation brings visitors and spending, but can leave communities with fewer residents in winter and much greater pressure during summer.

Water storage and renewable energy

Water storage and supply can bring benefits far beyond the uplands. Reservoirs supply water for domestic and industrial use in urban areas. Managed land around reservoirs can also provide recreation facilities.

The landscape cost can be substantial. Damming and flooding a valley replaces land habitats with a water body. The dam alters the valley's appearance, while access roads and construction can destroy further habitats. A reliable water supply must therefore be weighed against the loss and transformation of land.

Renewable energy developments include hydroelectric power and wind turbines. In a hydroelectric scheme, moving water drives turbines to generate electricity. Wind turbines use the movement of air. Both can supply local communities and urban areas, create jobs and generate electricity without greenhouse gas emissions during operation.

However, hydroelectric reservoirs can flood habitats, just as water-supply reservoirs do. Wind turbines alter views, may create noise and can affect birds' movement and migration. The environmental benefit of renewable electricity does not mean that every development has no local environmental cost.

Recreation and tourism: income and pressure

Walking, cycling and other outdoor recreation attract visitors to glaciated uplands. Visitors spend money on accommodation, food and activities, supporting jobs and local services. Farmers can diversify into activities such as tourist accommodation, adding another source of income.

Visitor pressure also changes the landscape. Repeated use by walkers, mountain bikers and off-road vehicles can wear away vegetation and increase soil erosion. Once the protective cover is lost, rainwater can remove more soil from the exposed surface. Greater numbers of visitors can also disturb wildlife.

Other disadvantages affect local communities. Narrow roads can become congested, while demand for holiday lets and second homes can increase housing costs. Tourism can therefore support the local economy while making daily life more difficult for some residents.

Conservation and the choices between uses

Conservation protects habitats and wildlife rather than allowing every area to be developed. Grants and subsidies can help farmers manage land for conservation, providing a financial reason to protect valued habitats. Maintaining vegetation also helps retain the cover that protects soil from erosion.

Conservation costs money, however, and habitats require ongoing management. Limited funds can delay projects. Protecting a landscape is therefore an active use of resources, not simply leaving it untouched.

Judging development means considering who benefits, who bears the costs and how lasting the changes are. A reservoir may provide water for many people but permanently flood habitats. Tourism can support jobs, yet heavy use can accelerate erosion. Forestry can reduce erosion while trees are growing, but harvesting changes that protection. The strongest judgement recognises both the benefits of using uplands and the physical and ecological consequences of changing them.