Location, Formation and Climate of a Glaciated Landscape

• Geology: Both regions are situated north and west of the Tees-Exe line. They are formed of ancient, highly resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks (e.g., Borrowdale Volcanics in the Lake District). Crucially, these rocks do NOT erode easily like the softer sedimentary rocks found in the south and east of the UK, allowing them to preserve dramatic landforms as a relict landscape.
• Altitude: These landscapes feature the highest peaks in England (Scafell Pike, 978m) and Wales (Snowdon, 1,085m). The high altitude allowed snow to persist and form local ice caps during the last ice age.
• Latitude & Aspect: Situated between 53° and 55° North, they sat on the margins of the main Pleistocene ice sheet. North-facing slopes are especially significant as they receive less solar radiation, preventing summer snowmelt.
• Ocean & Wind: Proximity to the North Atlantic Drift keeps winters milder than other global locations at this latitude. However, being on the west coast, they are the first point of contact for moisture-laden prevailing south-westerly winds, resulting in massive precipitation.

Analysing Climate Data in Glaciated Uplands

Every time you climb a mountain, you can feel the temperature dropping and the wind picking up. Climate data proves how extreme these upland environments are today.

• Rainfall Data: The Lake District receives enormous rainfall, averaging over 2,000mm annually and peaking up to 5,000mm in central mountain areas. Seathwaite is the wettest inhabited place in England. Peak rainfall occurs in December (~100mm) and drops to its lowest in April (~50mm). Snowdonia similarly averages 2,697mm to 3,000mm+.
• Relief Rainfall: This massive precipitation is relief (orographic) rainfall, formed when moist air is forced over high land, leaving the eastern side in a drier rain shadow.
• Temperature Data: The Lake District's annual temperature range is typically 1°C to 18°C. Snowdonia averages 1-5°C in January and 15°C in July. Winter temperatures at altitude frequently drop below 0°C, driving active physical weathering.

Worked Example: Calculating Temperature Range

An exam may require you to calculate the temperature range from a climate graph.

• Formula: $\text{Range} = \text{Maximum Temperature} - \text{Minimum Temperature}$

• Step 1: Read the data. July max is $16^\circ\text{C}$ and January min is $3^\circ\text{C}$.

• Step 2: Substitute into the formula: $16 - 3$

• Step 3: Final answer with units: $13^\circ\text{C}$.

Worked Example: Calculating Lapse Rate

Temperatures decrease by $1^\circ\text{C}$ for every $100\text{m}$ of altitude gained.

• Step 1: Identify sea level temperature and target altitude. Sea level = $8^\circ\text{C}$, Snowdon summit = $1,085\text{m}$.

• Step 2: Calculate temperature drop: $1,085 \div 100 = 10.85^\circ\text{C}$ (round to $10.8$ or $10.9$ depending on specific exam guidance).

• Step 3: Subtract from sea level temperature: $8 - 10.8 = -2.8^\circ\text{C}$.

Glacial Formation Processes and Landforms

You can easily snap a brittle twig, but try breaking solid rock with just frozen water. During the Pleistocene Ice Age (peaking 20,000 years ago and ending 11,500 years ago), ice sheets up to 1 km thick carved the UK's uplands.

The growth or retreat of a glacier is determined by the glacial budget:

$$\text{Net Balance} = \text{Accumulation} - \text{Ablation}$$

If accumulation (snow/ice inputs) exceeds ablation (melting/evaporation), the glacier advances. As it moves, it shapes the landscape via two main erosional processes:

• Plucking: Meltwater at the glacier's base freezes into cracks in the bedrock. As the ice moves, it tears chunks of rock away.
• Abrasion: Rocks embedded in the ice act like sandpaper, grinding the bedrock and leaving scratches called striations.

The Sequence of Corrie Formation:

1. Snow accumulates in a sheltered north-facing hollow.
2. Compaction turns snow into glacial ice.
3. Rotational slip (circular ice movement) deepens the hollow floor, while plucking steepens the back wall.
4. Abrasion deepens the base, leaving a rock lip at the edge.
5. Post-glaciation, the ice melts and the hollow fills with water to form a tarn (e.g., Red Tarn on Helvellyn).

Other erosional landforms include U-shaped valleys (e.g., Langdale), arêtes (e.g., Striding Edge), and pyramidal peaks (e.g., Helvellyn). Depositional landforms include ribbon lakes (e.g., Windermere) and drumlins (e.g., Vale of Eden).

Factors Driving Post-Glacial Landscape Change

A landscape is never truly finished; it is constantly being reshaped by both natural forces and human activity. The Lake District covers 2,362 km² and is a sparsely populated (18 people per km²) "paraglacial" environment, meaning it is modified by non-glacial processes today.

Physical Drivers:

• Weathering: Temperature fluctuations around 0°C cause freeze-thaw weathering. Water enters rock cracks, freezes, and expands by 9%, eventually shattering the rock to form active scree slopes (e.g., Wasdale Screes).
• Solifluction: In summer, the active layer of soil thaws. The meltwater can NOT drain away because the frozen permafrost beneath it is impermeable. The saturated soil loses cohesion and flows slowly downhill under gravity (even on 1-5 degree slopes), forming solifluction lobes. If this occurs specifically over a permafrost layer, it is called gelifluction.
• Rivers & Climate Change: Small misfit stream/rivers flow through massive U-shaped valleys. They did NOT and could NOT carve these valleys themselves, but increased storm frequency (e.g., Cumbria floods 2009/2015) is accelerating modern river erosion.

Human Drivers:

• Tourism: The Lake District receives 15.8–18.14 million visitors annually, bringing in up to £2.1bn. However, 4 million walkers average 6km each, causing severe footpath erosion, soil compaction, and subsequent gullying.
• Farming: Extensive sheep farming (e.g., Herdwick sheep) on steep relief causes overgrazing, destroying vegetation cover and accelerating soil erosion.
• Forestry & Water Supply: Large coniferous plantations (Sitka Spruce) are planted by the Forestry Commission to provide timber and stabilize soils. Additionally, glaciated valleys are flooded for water storage; Haweswater Reservoir supplies 25% of North West England’s water.