Photographs, Sketches and Cross-Sections

Seeing the landscape from different viewpoints

A map shows where features are located, a photograph shows their appearance, and a cross-section shows the shape of the land along a particular line. Using these together helps you connect relief with vegetation, settlement and land-use.

Each representation is selective. A photograph captures one view at one moment; a map uses symbols and may have been surveyed at a different date; a cross-section represents only the land along its chosen line. Start by checking the title, date, direction, scale and key wherever these are supplied.

Reading the shape of the land in a cross-section

A cross-section represents a vertical slice through the landscape between two points, often labelled A and B. Its horizontal axis shows distance along that line. Its vertical axis usually shows height above sea level, in metres. Read from the named starting point towards the end point rather than assuming a compass direction.

Follow the profile to identify rising and falling land, hilltops, valleys and flatter stretches. A hill appears as a rise followed by a fall; a valley appears as a dip between higher ground. Describe where these features occur, using distances and heights from the axes when available.

To relate a profile to a contour map, trace the same A–B line across the map. Each contour crossing supplies a height at a particular position. Closely spaced crossings indicate a steep slope; widely spaced crossings indicate a gentler slope. A profile matching the map must rise and fall in the same sequence and place its hills and valleys in the correct positions.

This fictional example shows how to read those relationships. From A, the land rises towards a hilltop at 800 m along the line. The 60 m and 80 m contour crossings are close together on the approach to the summit, so that section is relatively steep. Beyond the summit, the contour crossings are more widely spaced and the land falls more gently towards B.

A profile can make slopes look steeper than they really are if the vertical scale enlarges height more than the horizontal scale enlarges distance. Use the axis scales, not just the visual angle of the line, when judging steepness.

From a cross-section to a transect

A transect records changes along a selected line through an area. It can show physical features, such as vegetation, as well as human features, such as buildings, roads and land-use. Information may be written beside a profile or arranged in bands underneath it, aligned with the same distances.

In the transect, cleared land occupies the lower ground near A, woodland occupies the upper slopes and summit, and cleared land reappears towards B. Aligning the land-use band with the profile lets you describe an association between woodland and higher ground in this example. It does not prove why the woodland is there: soil, ownership or land management might also matter.

On a real transect, read the key and locate each change along the line. Compare categories at the same position rather than reading each band separately. For example, you might find that a change from housing to fields coincides with a change in relief. Remember that a single line does not show every part of the surrounding area.

A cross-section can be constructed by placing a strip of paper along A–B on a contour map, marking every contour crossing and recording its height. Transfer those positions to a horizontal axis at the map’s distance scale, plot the heights using a suitable vertical scale, then join them into a profile. Add a title, endpoints and labelled axes. Contours constrain the shape but do not reveal every small irregularity between crossings.

Interpreting ground, aerial and satellite photographs

A ground photograph is taken from near ground level. It often shows building details, vegetation and the appearance of slopes clearly, but nearer features can hide those behind them. Organise your description into foreground, middle distance and background. Apparent size also depends on distance from the camera.

An aerial photograph looks down from above. A vertical view is useful for recognising settlement layout, field boundaries, drainage and transport networks. An oblique view looks across the landscape at an angle, revealing more of the sides of buildings and landforms, but with more overlap and perspective distortion.

A satellite image can reveal broad patterns, such as cloud cover, vegetation, settlement or geographical phenomena affecting a large area. Check its date, resolution and legend. Some images use false colours to highlight particular features, so colour alone is not enough to identify them: decode it using the supplied key.

For all three types, first identify what is visible:

• Physical features: landforms, slope shape, rivers, coastline and natural vegetation.
• Human features: buildings, roads, fields, settlement layout and other land-uses.
• Patterns: whether features are clustered, dispersed, linear or concentrated in a particular part of the view.

Use shape, texture, arrangement and relationships as evidence. For example, if buildings form a continuous row beside a road, ‘buildings are arranged in a linear pattern along the road’ is a precise description. Their appearance alone would not establish residents’ incomes or the age of the settlement.

Interpretation goes a step beyond description. If a photograph shows water covering roads and surrounding buildings, those observations support an interpretation of flooding. They do not, by themselves, establish its cause, duration or frequency. Keep observations separate from conclusions, and explain the evidence supporting a conclusion when the question requires it.

Connecting photographs with maps

To match a photograph to a map, look for a distinctive combination of features: a river bend, road junction, coastline shape or arrangement of buildings. Locate those features on the map, then use their relative positions to work out the photographed area and, for a ground view, the likely viewing direction.

Compare the representations feature by feature. A map can supply names, heights and orientation that are not obvious in the photograph; the photograph can show appearance and detail that the map simplifies. If they disagree, consider differences in date, viewpoint and scale before concluding that the landscape has changed.

Making a useful sketch from a photograph

A landscape sketch is a simplified record, not an artistic copy. Its purpose is to make the important geography clear.

1. Give the sketch a title and draw a frame with roughly the photograph’s proportions.
2. Lightly outline the largest shapes first: the skyline, major slopes, coastline or river course.
3. Add relevant vegetation, buildings, roads or field boundaries in their correct relative positions.
4. Leave out small details that do not help answer the question or enquiry.
5. Add clear labels and, where needed, annotations.

For a river photograph, this might mean prioritising the channel, valley sides and visible vegetation rather than every individual stone. Preserve the relationships shown in the photograph: do not widen a valley or add an unseen feature because you expect it to be there.

Use clear pencil lines and readable horizontal writing. Place labels around the sketch, with ruled leader lines ending at the correct features, and avoid crossing them. Add location and viewing direction if known; do not invent them. A sketch can highlight important evidence, but proportions may be approximate and omitted details can limit its usefulness.

A sketch map is different: it simplifies a place as seen from above. Retain the relative positions of key features and include a title, key and direction where known. A landscape sketch should not be treated as a measured plan-view map.

Labelling and annotating other representations

A label identifies something; an annotation adds a description or explanation. ‘Steep valley side’ labels a feature. ‘Closely spaced contours indicate a steep valley side’ connects evidence with interpretation.

On diagrams, sketches and photographs, point to the exact feature. On maps, keep labels clear of symbols and preserve the map’s key. On graphs, identify axes and units, distinguish data series with a key where necessary, and attach annotations to the relevant point or interval. An annotation such as ‘highest value occurs here’ belongs at the peak, not elsewhere on the line.

Cross-sections and transects

• Cross-section: land height along a line. Read endpoints, distance, height and axis scales.
• Match rises, falls, summits and valleys to the contour crossings along the same map line.
• Close contour crossings = steep slope; wider spacing = gentler slope.
• Transect: changes in features along a line. Align land-use, vegetation or settlement information with the profile.
• An association does not prove a cause; one transect does not represent the whole area.

Photograph interpretation

• Ground: foreground, middle distance and background; detail, but hidden features and perspective.
• Aerial: settlement, drainage and land-use patterns; check vertical or oblique viewpoint.
• Satellite: broad patterns; check date, resolution and colour key.
• Describe physical and human features with precise locations. Support interpretations with visible evidence.
• Match photographs and maps using distinctive shared features and their relative positions.