Global Patterns and Impacts of Food Insecurity

Food security is about access, not just production

The world produces enough food to feed its population, yet some people regularly go hungry. The problem is not simply how much food exists: it is also where food is produced, whether it can reach people and whether they can afford it.

Food security means that everyone has reliable access to enough safe, nutritious food for a healthy and active life. Food insecurity means that this access is uncertain or inadequate. A household may be food insecure even when nearby shops have food, because its income is too low to buy enough.

A food surplus occurs when supply exceeds need; a food deficit occurs when supply falls short. Imports can make up a shortfall in domestic production. This means a country does not have to grow all its own food to be food secure, provided it can afford imports and receive them reliably.

Global patterns of food supply and calorie intake

Food supply and consumption are unevenly distributed. Higher-income countries (HICs) tend to have more secure supplies, supported by productive agriculture and the ability to import food. Lower-income countries (LICs) are more likely to experience deficits because they may struggle both to produce enough food and to pay for imports. Some newly emerging economies (NEEs) can also use their growing wealth to import food.

Calorie intake measures the energy people obtain from food. Intake is generally high in the USA and Europe, where many people consume more energy than they need. Lower intake is common across much of sub-Saharan Africa; Pakistan is another example of a country where inadequate intake is a concern. These are broad patterns, not descriptions of every household. National averages can hide large differences between richer and poorer people.

Food quality matters alongside quantity. In countries with severe food insecurity, diets may depend heavily on cereals and tubers such as yams. These provide energy, but a diet relying on a narrow range of foods may not supply enough of all the nutrients needed for health. Having enough calories does not automatically mean having a balanced diet.

Why food consumption is increasing

Population growth increases total demand because there are more people to feed. Much population growth occurs in LICs and NEEs, including places where supplies are already insecure. If production and imports do not keep pace, the pressure on available food increases.

Economic development also increases consumption. As incomes rise, people can afford to buy more food and a wider variety of foods. Demand can therefore grow even without a population increase: the same number of people may each consume more. Easier and cheaper transport also allows food to reach more distant markets.

Climate and water affect harvests

Food supply depends partly on crop yield: the amount harvested from a given area. Crops need suitable temperatures and enough water at the right times. Extreme temperatures can restrict growth, while drought reduces the water available to plants. Floods and tropical storms can damage or destroy crops. Changing rainfall patterns can make harvests less reliable.

Water stress occurs when demand puts pressure on the available water supply. It can limit irrigation, the artificial watering of crops. In dry areas, insufficient irrigation can mean low yields or crop failure. Low rainfall and inadequate water infrastructure can work together, making it difficult for farmers to obtain water even where irrigation would improve production.

Technology, pests and poverty affect production

Technology can increase production and reduce losses. Machinery helps farmers carry out agricultural work, irrigation provides water, and storage and transport infrastructure help food reach consumers before it spoils. Wealthier farmers and countries are usually better able to invest in these systems. Where investment is limited, yields may be lower and more food may be lost before it reaches markets.

Pests and diseases can destroy crops or reduce livestock production. For example, locusts can consume growing crops. Farmers who can afford pesticides and livestock treatments are better able to limit losses; those who cannot may lose a large part of their food supply or income.

Poverty affects both production and access. A farmer may lack money for good-quality seeds, machinery or irrigation, keeping yields low. A household may also lack the income needed to buy food. Poor diets can cause ill health and reduce people's ability to work, making it harder to escape poverty.

Conflict can interrupt the whole food supply chain

Conflict may force farmers to abandon their land, leaving fields uncultivated. Crops and livestock can be destroyed, while damaged or blocked transport routes prevent food from reaching markets. Imports may also fail to reach the people who need them.

Several pressures can combine. For example, a poor harvest becomes more serious if conflict blocks replacement supplies and households cannot afford the remaining food. Food insecurity is often the result of interacting physical, economic and political factors rather than one cause alone.

Hunger affects health and livelihoods

Undernutrition occurs when people obtain insufficient food energy or nutrients. It can weaken health and restrict children's growth and development. Adults affected by hunger and ill health may be less able to work, reducing household earnings and a country's productivity.

A famine is an extreme food shortage affecting a population. Severe, prolonged hunger can lead to acute malnutrition and deaths from starvation. Food insecurity does not always reach this extreme: people may experience persistent inadequate diets without a famine occurring.

Shortages can raise prices and trigger unrest

When food supply falls but demand remains high, prices tend to rise. Poorer households are especially vulnerable because they may no longer be able to afford enough food or a balanced diet. A shortage can therefore affect people who do not farm, as well as those whose harvests fail.

Hunger and rising prices can lead to social unrest, including protests, riots and looting. People may blame governments for failing to secure affordable supplies. Food insecurity can contribute to conflict, although unrest is not an inevitable outcome of every shortage.

Food insecurity can damage future food supply

Farmers facing shortages may cultivate land repeatedly without allowing it to recover, or keep too many grazing animals on it. Overcultivation and overgrazing reduce vegetation cover and leave soil vulnerable to erosion by wind and water. Losing fertile soil reduces future yields, making food insecurity worse.

This is a reinforcing cycle: the response to an immediate shortage can damage the resources needed for future harvests. Food insecurity therefore has connected health, economic, social and environmental impacts.

Global pattern

• Food supply and calorie intake are uneven despite sufficient global food production.
• HICs generally have more secure supplies and greater ability to import; LICs are more likely to face deficits.
• Intake is generally high in the USA and Europe, and lower across much of sub-Saharan Africa.
• Imports can cover domestic shortfalls. National averages hide household inequalities.

Why demand rises

• Population growth: more people need food.
• Economic development: higher incomes allow greater consumption and more varied diets.

Six factors affecting supply

• Climate: drought, floods and extreme temperatures reduce yields.
• Technology: machinery, irrigation, storage and transport improve production and delivery.
• Pests and disease: damage crops and livestock.
• Water stress: limits irrigation and crop growth.
• Conflict: displaces farmers, destroys production and blocks transport.