OCR GCSE History B (J411) — The Norman Conquest (1065–1087)
Surviving childhood was an achievement in medieval Europe, but surviving it as an illegitimate seven-year-old duke surrounded by murderous barons was near impossible. Born around 1028 to Duke Robert I and Herleva, a tanner's daughter, William was mockingly known as "William the Bastard". When his father died on a pilgrimage in 1035, William inherited the duchy, plunging Normandy into a state of anarchy.
The turning point of his early reign came at the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047. With the crucial support of King Henry I of France, William decisively defeated a coalition of rebellious nobles led by Guy of Brionne. By 1060, after fighting off further challenges from the Count of Anjou and his former ally the French King, William had securely consolidated his power over Normandy.
This brutal period served as a vital learning ground, teaching William how to suppress revolts and manage complex military campaigns. He further secured his position by marrying Matilda of Flanders, though the Pope initially blocked the union due to consanguinity. As penance for marrying a close blood relative, the couple founded two magnificent abbeys in Caen, aided by key advisors like Archbishop Lanfranc and William's half-brother, Odo of Bayeux.
Modern society often praises people who work their way up from the bottom, but in Norman society, your social rank at birth was almost certainly your rank for life. The Duke of Normandy sat at the very top of a highly rigid hierarchy, followed by powerful magnates, professional warriors, and finally the peasantry.
This hierarchy was glued together by the exchange of land for loyalty, centred around the fief. The Duke granted vast estates to a tenant-in-chief (a powerful vassal like a baron or bishop), who in return owed the Duke loyalty and 40 days of unpaid knight service each year. These lords could then grant smaller parcels of land to a vavasour, creating a deeply interconnected chain of military obligation.
At the bottom of society, the free peasantry of the Anglo-Saxon era was largely replaced by the villein. These unfree peasants were tied to their lord's land and forced to complete boon work in exchange for a small plot to farm. Following 1066, William used this strict system to replace approximately 4,000 Anglo-Saxon thegns with just 200 Norman tenants-in-chief.
| Feature | Anglo-Saxon Society | Norman Society |
|---|---|---|
| Social Mobility | Flexible (a ceorl could become a thegn with 5 hides of land). | Highly rigid; knights were a distinct, elite class with little mobility. |
| Slavery | Existed and was an accepted practice. | Viewed as barbaric; the Normans oversaw its decline. |
| Women's Rights | Women had significant legal standing and property rights. | Legal rights and property ownership for women were severely reduced. |
Imagine trying to stay seated on a galloping horse while holding a heavy spear and crashing directly into a wall of enemy shields. This was the terrifying reality of the Norman heavy cavalry, a unit of full-time professional knights who acted as a devastating shock force. Their effectiveness relied on technological advancements like stirrups and high-backed saddles, which "locked" the rider into position, allowing them to absorb the massive shock of a collision without being unhorsed.
These knights wore a chainmail shirt called a hauberk, a conical helmet featuring a protective nasal guard, and carried a kite-shaped shield to defend their left side and leg. To maximize their impact, they trained on a spinning target called a quintain and mastered the couched lance technique, tucking their weapons securely under their arms to transfer the horse's full momentum into the strike. On the battlefield, they were highly disciplined, frequently executing a feigned retreat to trick enemy infantry into breaking their defensive formations.
Alongside elite cavalry, the Normans dominated their landscape by building highly intimidating fortresses. Unlike Anglo-Saxon communal towns, Normans built private strongholds designed to control rebellious locals and secure strategic choke points like river crossings.
A classic Norman fortress could be built by unskilled labour in just 8 to 14 days following these clear steps:
Understanding medieval church architecture explains how the Normans projected total power and divine authority over their subjects. The Normans championed the Romanesque style, which was characterised by its massive scale, sturdy pillars, rounded arches, and incredibly thick walls. These buildings were typically constructed in a cruciform shape, featuring a long central nave, a crossing transept, and an upper row of windows called a clerestory. Stonemasons decorated these structures with geometric V-shaped carvings known as chevron patterns.
Beyond architecture, Norman culture was defined by its language and education. While the majority of the population was illiterate, the elite used Norman French for everyday business, while Latin remained the essential language for the Church and legal records. Under the influence of Archbishop Lanfranc, education also shifted, with schools moving from the isolation of monasteries into growing towns.
The religious devotion of the Norman aristocracy was immense; between 1035 and 1066, they founded at least 20 new monastic houses. William used religion as a tool for political control and reform. He fiercely opposed simony and clerical marriage, while strictly enforcing the Truce of God to ban private fighting on holy days. By framing the Anglo-Saxon church as corrupt, William successfully secured the Papal Banner from Pope Alexander II, transforming his 1066 invasion into a holy war.
Students often state that William entirely invented feudalism; however, you should describe how he formalised and made an existing system significantly more rigid to secure total control.
For 'Describe' questions regarding Norman warfare or architecture, examiners award high marks for logical sequencing; use step-by-step phrasing like 'First...', 'Then...', and 'Finally...' when explaining how a motte and bailey castle was constructed.
When explaining William's military success in 1066, explicitly link it back to his pre-1066 experiences, noting how surviving the early anarchy in Normandy taught him to suppress revolts effectively.
In comparison questions, contrast the speed and private nature of Norman castle building against the communal, defensive Anglo-Saxon burhs to highlight how the Normans ruled through intimidation.
Anarchy
A state of societal disorder due to the absence or non-recognition of a ruling authority.
Consanguinity
A close blood relationship between two people intending to marry, which the Church often used to forbid unions.
Archbishop Lanfranc
A key advisor to Duke William who reformed the Norman Church and oversaw the relocation of schools to towns.
Odo of Bayeux
Duke William's half-brother and Bishop of Bayeux, who provided vital military and political support.
Fief
An area of land held by a vassal from a lord in return for feudal loyalty and military service.
Tenant-in-chief
A powerful lord, such as a baron or bishop, who held land directly from the Duke or King.
Vassal
A person who held land under the feudal system and owed direct service and loyalty to a superior.
Knight service
The feudal obligation to provide a set number of equipped knights for 40 days of military service annually.
Vavasour
A lower-ranking knight or squire who served a more powerful knight.
Villein
An unfree peasant tied to the land, who provided agricultural labour in exchange for a plot to farm.
Boon work
Specific days of unpaid labour, such as harvesting, that a peasant was required to provide for their lord.
Heavy cavalry
Elite, full-time professional knights who fought on horseback to deliver devastating shock attacks.
Stirrups
Metal loops for the feet that allowed knights to stay balanced and deliver powerful blows while mounted.
High-backed saddles
A saddle with a raised front and back that 'locked' the knight in place, enabling them to absorb collision shock.
Hauberk
A heavy chainmail shirt made of approximately 30,000 interlocking iron rings.
Conical helmet
A cone-shaped metal headpiece worn by Norman soldiers to deflect downward blows.
Nasal guard
A strip of metal extending down from a helmet to protect the warrior's nose and face.
Kite-shaped shield
A long, teardrop-shaped shield designed to protect a knight's left side and leg while riding horseback.
Quintain
A rotating heavy target used by knights to practice charging and lance strikes.
Couched lance
A technique where a knight tucks their lance tightly under their arm to use the galloping horse's momentum for the strike.
Feigned retreat
A highly disciplined military tactic where soldiers pretend to flee in order to lure the enemy out of a strong defensive position.
Fosse
A deep circular ditch dug around a castle, sometimes filled with water to form a moat.
Motte
A large, steep, man-made earth mound that formed the foundation for a castle's central tower.
Keep
The strongly fortified wooden or stone tower built on top of the motte, serving as the lord's primary residence.
Bailey
A flat, enclosed courtyard situated at the base of the motte, housing stables, soldiers, and workshops.
Palisade
A strong wooden fence made of sharpened stakes that completely surrounded the bailey and motte.
Romanesque
An architectural style characterising Norman buildings, featuring massive scale, thick walls, rounded arches, and sturdy pillars.
Cruciform
A building layout designed in the shape of a cross, typical of major Norman churches.
Nave
The long, central aisle of a church where the congregation gathers.
Transept
The section of a cruciform church that crosses the nave at right angles.
Clerestory
The upper level of a church nave, containing a series of windows to let in light.
Chevron
A common V-shaped or zig-zag geometric stone carving used to decorate Romanesque arches and pillars.
Norman French
The spoken language of the Norman aristocracy and ruling class.
Latin
The official language used by the Church and for writing legal or administrative records in Normandy.
Simony
The corrupt and illegal practice of buying or selling ecclesiastical privileges or church offices.
Truce of God
An 11th-century church decree, supported by William, that strictly banned private warfare and fighting on holy days.
Papal Banner
A flag blessed and given by the Pope, indicating divine approval and support for a military campaign.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History B
Anarchy
A state of societal disorder due to the absence or non-recognition of a ruling authority.
Consanguinity
A close blood relationship between two people intending to marry, which the Church often used to forbid unions.
Archbishop Lanfranc
A key advisor to Duke William who reformed the Norman Church and oversaw the relocation of schools to towns.
Odo of Bayeux
Duke William's half-brother and Bishop of Bayeux, who provided vital military and political support.
Fief
An area of land held by a vassal from a lord in return for feudal loyalty and military service.
Tenant-in-chief
A powerful lord, such as a baron or bishop, who held land directly from the Duke or King.
Vassal
A person who held land under the feudal system and owed direct service and loyalty to a superior.
Knight service
The feudal obligation to provide a set number of equipped knights for 40 days of military service annually.
Vavasour
A lower-ranking knight or squire who served a more powerful knight.
Villein
An unfree peasant tied to the land, who provided agricultural labour in exchange for a plot to farm.
Boon work
Specific days of unpaid labour, such as harvesting, that a peasant was required to provide for their lord.
Heavy cavalry
Elite, full-time professional knights who fought on horseback to deliver devastating shock attacks.
Stirrups
Metal loops for the feet that allowed knights to stay balanced and deliver powerful blows while mounted.
High-backed saddles
A saddle with a raised front and back that 'locked' the knight in place, enabling them to absorb collision shock.
Hauberk
A heavy chainmail shirt made of approximately 30,000 interlocking iron rings.
Conical helmet
A cone-shaped metal headpiece worn by Norman soldiers to deflect downward blows.
Nasal guard
A strip of metal extending down from a helmet to protect the warrior's nose and face.
Kite-shaped shield
A long, teardrop-shaped shield designed to protect a knight's left side and leg while riding horseback.
Quintain
A rotating heavy target used by knights to practice charging and lance strikes.
Couched lance
A technique where a knight tucks their lance tightly under their arm to use the galloping horse's momentum for the strike.
Feigned retreat
A highly disciplined military tactic where soldiers pretend to flee in order to lure the enemy out of a strong defensive position.
Fosse
A deep circular ditch dug around a castle, sometimes filled with water to form a moat.
Motte
A large, steep, man-made earth mound that formed the foundation for a castle's central tower.
Keep
The strongly fortified wooden or stone tower built on top of the motte, serving as the lord's primary residence.
Bailey
A flat, enclosed courtyard situated at the base of the motte, housing stables, soldiers, and workshops.
Palisade
A strong wooden fence made of sharpened stakes that completely surrounded the bailey and motte.
Romanesque
An architectural style characterising Norman buildings, featuring massive scale, thick walls, rounded arches, and sturdy pillars.
Cruciform
A building layout designed in the shape of a cross, typical of major Norman churches.
Nave
The long, central aisle of a church where the congregation gathers.
Transept
The section of a cruciform church that crosses the nave at right angles.
Clerestory
The upper level of a church nave, containing a series of windows to let in light.
Chevron
A common V-shaped or zig-zag geometric stone carving used to decorate Romanesque arches and pillars.
Norman French
The spoken language of the Norman aristocracy and ruling class.
Latin
The official language used by the Church and for writing legal or administrative records in Normandy.
Simony
The corrupt and illegal practice of buying or selling ecclesiastical privileges or church offices.
Truce of God
An 11th-century church decree, supported by William, that strictly banned private warfare and fighting on holy days.
Papal Banner
A flag blessed and given by the Pope, indicating divine approval and support for a military campaign.
