OCR GCSE History B (J411) — The Mughal Empire (1526–1707)
Imagine holding a silver coin from the 17th century stamped with the name of an empress, an act of sovereignty almost unthinkable in the early modern world. This was the reality under the joint governance of Emperor Jahangir and his wife Nur Jahan. Evaluating their reign requires weighing evidence of Jahangir's early independence against Nur Jahan's unprecedented accumulation of political, economic, and cultural power.
Before Nur Jahan's rise, Jahangir (crowned in 1605) took clear steps to establish his own independent authority. He immediately issued the Dastur-ul-Amal, a set of 12 administrative decrees designed to promote justice and public welfare. These laws abolished oppressive transit taxes like the tamgha, banned inhuman punishments such as mutilation, and ordered the construction of hospitals.
To cement his image as the ultimate protector of his subjects, he installed the Chain of Justice. This was a golden chain with 60 bells attached to the Agra Fort, allowing any citizen to bypass corrupt officials and petition the Emperor directly. Militarily, Jahangir was also a capable leader; he personally suppressed the 1606 rebellion of his son, Prince Khusrav, and successfully subjugated Mewar in 1615.
Born Mehr-un-Nisa, she married Jahangir in 1611 and was granted the title Nur Jahan ("Light of the World") and eventually Badshah Begum. Her power was rooted in vast economic independence. She held her own jagirs (land grants) in Ramsar and Toda, which provided her with immense personal tax revenue.
Nur Jahan was also highly active in international maritime trade. She owned merchant ships that exported valuable indigo and embroidered cloth from the port of Surat across the Red Sea, generating immense wealth that funded her political ambitions.
Historian Dr. Beni Prasad famously proposed the Junta theory, arguing that between 1611 and 1622, a four-person clique completely controlled the Mughal Empire. This faction allegedly consisted of Nur Jahan, her father Itimad-ud-Daula, her brother Asaf Khan, and Prince Khurram (the future Shah Jahan).
| Arguments FOR the Junta Theory | Arguments AGAINST the Junta Theory (Modern View) |
|---|---|
| The faction allegedly held a strict monopoly on who was granted access to Jahangir. | Emperor Jahangir's memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, show he remained the final decision-maker on major policies until his health failed. |
| High Mansabs (administrative ranks) were heavily concentrated among Nur Jahan's immediate family. | Historians like Irfan Habib argue that family promotions were actually awarded fairly, based on merit and seniority. |
As Jahangir's health rapidly declined after 1622 due to severe opium and alcohol addiction, Nur Jahan assumed overt control. She held custody of the Imperial Seal, meaning her signature was legally required for any Farman (royal decree) to be valid. She even engaged in Jharokha Darshan, appearing on the palace balcony to address the public—a sacred duty traditionally strictly reserved for the Emperor.
Her power was most visibly confirmed through imperial coinage. She was the only Mughal Empress to have gold and silver coins minted in her name. However, this evidence must be evaluated carefully: while the coins demonstrate her immense authority, the Persian inscription read, "By order of King Jahangir, gold has a hundred splendours added to it by the name of Nur Jahan." This proves her power was technically derived from, and reliant upon, her husband.
Beyond politics, Nur Jahan profoundly impacted the empire's culture by championing a Persianate aesthetic in fashion, perfumes (such as rose attar), and architecture.
Her most significant architectural achievement was the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula (1622–1628) in Agra, built for her father. This structure marked a crucial transitional phase in Mughal architecture. It was the first Mughal building constructed entirely of white marble and the first to make extensive use of Pietra Dura (intricate floral inlays of semi-precious stones). It heavily influenced the later design of the Taj Mahal.
The overall impact of their joint governance unfolds as a narrative of early stability giving way to factional disaster. While Nur Jahan successfully commanded an army to rescue Jahangir during Mahabat Khan's Rebellion in 1626, her factional plotting ultimately fractured the empire. When she shifted her support to Prince Shahryar in 1622, it triggered a devastating four-year civil war with Shah Jahan. This internal strife distracted the Mughal military, directly causing the permanent loss of the highly strategic city of Kandahar to the Persian Safavids in 1622.
Students often claim Jahangir was a weak puppet throughout his entire reign. Actually, until his addiction worsened around 1622, evidence like the 12 Decrees shows he was an active and independent ruler.
For 'Evaluate' questions, use the inscription on Nur Jahan's coins to show both sides of the argument: the coins prove her immense power, but the phrase 'By order of King Jahangir' proves his ultimate authority.
Examiners reward specific evidence of Nur Jahan's 'unfeminine' or atypical power, such as leading troops during Mahabat Khan's Rebellion or holding custody of the Imperial Seal.
When discussing the impact of their rule, contrast the cultural triumphs (like the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula) with the military failures caused by factionalism (like the loss of Kandahar in 1622).
Dastur-ul-Amal
The 12 administrative decrees issued by Jahangir at his coronation, focusing on justice, public welfare, and the abolition of unfair transit taxes.
Chain of Justice
A literal golden chain at Agra Fort that subjects could pull to bypass corrupt officials and appeal directly to the Emperor for legal judgments.
Badshah Begum
The title meaning "Queen of Queens", signifying Nur Jahan's status as the chief lady and highest-ranking female of the Mughal court.
Jagir
A grant of land and its associated tax revenue given to a state official, which provided Nur Jahan with significant independent wealth.
Junta
A historical theory proposing that a small four-person faction, led by Nur Jahan, exercised total control over the Mughal government between 1611 and 1622.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
The personal memoirs of Emperor Jahangir, which provide primary evidence of his interests and his independent decision-making.
Mansab
A specific numerical rank within the Mughal administrative and military hierarchy that determined an official's salary and status.
Farman
An official imperial decree or royal order, which during the later reign required Nur Jahan's seal of approval.
Jharokha Darshan
The traditional practice of the monarch appearing before their subjects on a palace balcony to project power and availability.
Persianate
Relating to a cultural style heavily influenced by Persian language, aesthetics, fashion, and customs.
Pietra Dura
A highly decorative architectural technique using cut and polished coloured stones inlaid into marble to create complex patterns.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History B
Dastur-ul-Amal
The 12 administrative decrees issued by Jahangir at his coronation, focusing on justice, public welfare, and the abolition of unfair transit taxes.
Chain of Justice
A literal golden chain at Agra Fort that subjects could pull to bypass corrupt officials and appeal directly to the Emperor for legal judgments.
Badshah Begum
The title meaning "Queen of Queens", signifying Nur Jahan's status as the chief lady and highest-ranking female of the Mughal court.
Jagir
A grant of land and its associated tax revenue given to a state official, which provided Nur Jahan with significant independent wealth.
Junta
A historical theory proposing that a small four-person faction, led by Nur Jahan, exercised total control over the Mughal government between 1611 and 1622.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
The personal memoirs of Emperor Jahangir, which provide primary evidence of his interests and his independent decision-making.
Mansab
A specific numerical rank within the Mughal administrative and military hierarchy that determined an official's salary and status.
Farman
An official imperial decree or royal order, which during the later reign required Nur Jahan's seal of approval.
Jharokha Darshan
The traditional practice of the monarch appearing before their subjects on a palace balcony to project power and availability.
Persianate
Relating to a cultural style heavily influenced by Persian language, aesthetics, fashion, and customs.
Pietra Dura
A highly decorative architectural technique using cut and polished coloured stones inlaid into marble to create complex patterns.
