OCR GCSE History B (J411) — The Elizabethans (1580–1603)
When a sudden storm destroyed crops in the sixteenth century, people rarely blamed bad weather alone. The foundations for the great witch-hunts were laid by a 1486 manual called the Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of Witches). Written by Heinrich Kramer, this widely printed text argued that witchcraft was real and that denying its existence was a dangerous heresy.
Crucially, this manual shifted the legal focus of accusations. Instead of merely prosecuting maleficium (magic intended to cause physical or financial harm), courts began hunting for evidence of diabolism, which was the belief that witches had made a spiritual pact with the Devil. The text also argued that women were intellectually weaker and therefore more susceptible to demonic temptation.
This intellectual framework did not immediately trigger English witch-hunts, but it fundamentally changed how educated elites viewed magic. It heavily influenced later works, such as King James I's 1597 book Daemonologie, and established the tragic pattern where up to 90% of accused individuals were women.
As the population grew and prices skyrocketed in the late sixteenth century, village life became increasingly fractured. Historians frequently use the Functionalist Interpretation to explain how communities managed these mounting pressures. A leading theory is the "Charity Refused" model, which suggests that wealthier villagers felt immense guilt for turning away poor, elderly beggars.
By accusing these marginalized women of witchcraft, wealthy neighbors could reclassify them as undeserving and evil, alleviating their own guilt. These local disputes were heavily amplified by the broader economic transition from feudalism to capitalism. Through the process of enclosure, wealthy landowners fenced off common land, destroying the traditional safety net that had allowed poor women to gather firewood and food.
Alongside the loss of communal land, crop failures during the "Mini Ice Age" (c. 1580–1640) drove rents up drastically, with areas like Pendle seeing increases of up to 39%. These immense socio-economic shifts created overwhelming "pressures from below," leading desperate, starving villagers to scapegoat vulnerable members of their own communities.
Imagine a society where the government has collapsed, the official courts are closed, and heavily armed factions are fighting in your backyard. The English Civil War (1642–1651) turned the world upside down, shattering traditional social hierarchies and creating a highly dangerous legal vacuum.
During the conflict, the royal Assizes—the travelling courts overseen by professional, skeptical judges from London—were suspended. Justice was suddenly handed down by local magistrates and Justices of the Peace, completely removing the professional oversight that usually prevented mass panic from spiraling into executions.
The chaos was particularly intense in the Eastern Association, a heavily Puritan region. Radical Puritan factions viewed the Civil War as a literal, apocalyptic battle between God and Satan. In this climate of extreme religious paranoia, rooting out local witches was viewed as a holy duty to cleanse the land of demonic forces.
Earning a thousand pounds in just two years was an unimaginable fortune at a time when a laborer's daily wage was mere pence. This massive wealth was amassed by Matthew Hopkins, a failed lawyer who styled himself the Witchfinder General between 1645 and 1647. Exploiting the wartime legal vacuum, Hopkins and his associate John Stearne charged terrified towns exorbitant fees to root out suspected witches.
In just two years, Hopkins and Stearne investigated around 300 people, leading to approximately 100 to 200 executions—more than England had seen in the previous 160 years combined. Because official judicial torture was illegal in England, Hopkins relied on "soft" torture to extract forced confessions:
Once the frenzy subsided, surviving a witchcraft accusation did not mean a return to normal life. The hunts left behind a legacy of shattered communities and deep psychological trauma. Although roughly three-quarters of the individuals accused by Hopkins were eventually acquitted, they faced severe ostracization upon returning to their villages.
The witch-hunts had acted as a temporary "pressure valve" for wartime anxieties, but they left behind a "Great Silence." Exhausted communities actively avoided witchcraft litigation in the decades following 1647 to prevent reopening deep neighborhood wounds. The mass persecutions largely ended with the return of the Assize judges in 1646, who brought strict legal standards back to the process.
The ultimate legal turning point arrived decades later with the Witchcraft Act 1735/36. This critical piece of legislation abolished witchcraft as a supernatural crime entirely. Instead of executing suspected witches, the law now punished those who claimed to possess magical powers as fraudulent con-artists, replacing the hangman's noose with fines and imprisonment.
Students often state that English witches were burned at the stake. In England, the standard method of execution for witchcraft was hanging; burning was largely reserved for continental Europe and Scotland.
Do not claim that the Malleus Maleficarum directly caused the English witch-hunts. Instead, explain that it provided the intellectual framework that transformed magic from a local nuisance into a Satanic conspiracy.
In 'Analyse' questions about the causes of the 1640s hunts, examiners award high marks for highlighting the 'legal vacuum'. Emphasize that the closure of the Assize courts removed the professional oversight needed to stop local panics.
When discussing the socio-economic causes, always link the 'Charity Refused' model to broader economic changes like inflation, poor harvests, and the Enclosure movement.
Malleus Maleficarum
A highly influential 1486 manual that provided the intellectual and legal framework for prosecuting witches across Europe.
Heresy
Holding a belief or opinion that directly contradicts the orthodox teachings of the Christian Church.
Maleficium
Harmful magic or 'evil-doing' that was intended to cause physical injury, death, or financial damage to property and crops.
Diabolism
The belief that witches gained their magical powers by making a formal, spiritual pact with the Devil.
Daemonologie
A 1597 book written by King James I that outlined his obsession with witchcraft and encouraged hunts as a religious duty.
Functionalist Interpretation
The historical theory that witchcraft accusations served a practical social function, such as managing neighborly guilt over refusing charity.
Enclosure
The legal process of fencing off common land into larger private farms, which destroyed the communal resources relied upon by the poor.
Assizes
Periodic courts held by visiting professional judges from London, whose suspension during the Civil War led to a spike in local executions.
Witchfinder General
The self-appointed title used by Matthew Hopkins during his highly profitable and deadly witch-hunting campaign between 1645 and 1647.
Familiar
A demonic spirit, often taking the shape of an animal, that was believed to assist a witch in carrying out dark magic.
Ostracization
The severe social exclusion of an individual from their community, faced by many individuals who were acquitted of witchcraft.
Witchcraft Act 1735/36
Legislation that ended the legal recognition of witchcraft as a supernatural act, instead punishing those who claimed magical powers as fraudsters.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History B
Malleus Maleficarum
A highly influential 1486 manual that provided the intellectual and legal framework for prosecuting witches across Europe.
Heresy
Holding a belief or opinion that directly contradicts the orthodox teachings of the Christian Church.
Maleficium
Harmful magic or 'evil-doing' that was intended to cause physical injury, death, or financial damage to property and crops.
Diabolism
The belief that witches gained their magical powers by making a formal, spiritual pact with the Devil.
Daemonologie
A 1597 book written by King James I that outlined his obsession with witchcraft and encouraged hunts as a religious duty.
Functionalist Interpretation
The historical theory that witchcraft accusations served a practical social function, such as managing neighborly guilt over refusing charity.
Enclosure
The legal process of fencing off common land into larger private farms, which destroyed the communal resources relied upon by the poor.
Assizes
Periodic courts held by visiting professional judges from London, whose suspension during the Civil War led to a spike in local executions.
Witchfinder General
The self-appointed title used by Matthew Hopkins during his highly profitable and deadly witch-hunting campaign between 1645 and 1647.
Familiar
A demonic spirit, often taking the shape of an animal, that was believed to assist a witch in carrying out dark magic.
Ostracization
The severe social exclusion of an individual from their community, faced by many individuals who were acquitted of witchcraft.
Witchcraft Act 1735/36
Legislation that ended the legal recognition of witchcraft as a supernatural act, instead punishing those who claimed magical powers as fraudsters.
