OCR GCSE History B (J411) — Aztecs and the Spanish Conquest (1519–1535)
How does an emperor commanding thousands of warriors end up a prisoner in his own home? On 8 November 1519, Hernán Cortés and his men peacefully entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. Many historians believe the Spanish were allowed in so easily because the Aztecs thought Cortés might be a returning god, Quetzalcoatl.
Just one week later, the Spanish took Moctezuma II hostage. Cortés used the deaths of two Spanish soldiers at Veracruz—blamed on an Aztec noble named Quauhpopoca—as a legal excuse.
In reality, the 600 Spanish soldiers felt highly vulnerable inside a massive island city. They needed to hold the Emperor as a hostage in the Palace of Axayácatl to act as a human shield against an uprising.
For the next eight months, Moctezuma lived as a puppet ruler under Spanish control. He was forced to swear allegiance to the Spanish King, Emperor Charles V, and ordered his subjects to continue paying tribute.
Despite being a captive, Moctezuma was treated with outward respect and even played totoloque, a traditional gambling game, with Cortés. However, this submission fatally undermined his authority among the Aztec people.
Viewing him as a coward, the Aztec nobility stripped him of his power. They elected his brother, Cuitláhuac, as their new Huey Tlatoani (Emperor).
By 22 May 1520, tensions reached a breaking point during the Festival of Toxcatl. Cortés had left the city to fight a rival Spanish force led by Pánfilo de Narváez, leaving his second-in-command, Pedro de Alvarado, in charge.
Alvarado permitted the Aztecs to hold their religious festival on the condition that they brought no weapons and performed no human sacrifices. While unarmed Aztec nobles danced in the Sacred Patio, Alvarado's forces blocked the exits and slaughtered them.
Between 3,000 and 10,000 Aztec elites were killed in what became known as the Massacre in the Great Temple. Spanish sources claim this was a pre-emptive strike to stop an uprising, while Aztec accounts argue the Spanish simply wanted to steal the dancers' gold jewellery. This brutal event sparked a full-scale Aztec rebellion.
With the Spanish completely besieged, Moctezuma died in late June 1520, though the exact cause remains heavily debated. According to Spanish accounts, such as the writings of Bernal Díaz, Cortés forced Moctezuma onto the palace balcony to calm the angry crowds.
The Aztec people, feeling betrayed, threw stones and arrows at him. He was struck by three stones and reportedly died of his wounds and starvation days later.
In stark contrast, indigenous accounts recorded in the Florentine Codex tell a different story. They claim that once Cuitláhuac took power, Moctezuma was no longer useful to the Spanish, who strangled him or stabbed him five times before dumping his body.
Under the cover of darkness and heavy rain on 30 June 1520, the Spanish attempted a desperate escape. This disastrous retreat became known as La Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows).
To cross the gaps in the Tacuba causeway that the Aztecs had destroyed, Cortés ordered his men to build a portable wooden bridge. However, they were spotted by an Aztec sentry who raised the alarm, leading to a massive ambush on the lake.
The Spanish suffered catastrophic losses, with up to 800 soldiers and 4,000 Tlaxcalans (indigenous allies) killed. Many Spanish soldiers drowned because they refused to drop the heavy looted gold they were carrying.
The survivors were forced to flee without their artillery or horses. They only escaped total destruction because they found refuge with their Tlaxcalan allies, while the smallpox left behind by infected Spanish soldiers began devastating Tenochtitlan.
Students often state that Moctezuma died from being stoned by his own people as an absolute fact. Always mention that there are two conflicting accounts (Spanish stoning vs Aztec murder) to show source awareness and historical evaluation.
In 'Describe' questions about the escalation of hostilities, examiners look for a clear chronological sequence: the hostage-taking, the massacre by Alvarado, the death of Moctezuma, and finally the night retreat.
When discussing La Noche Triste, make sure to highlight the fatal role of the stolen gold—many Spanish soldiers drowned purely because they refused to drop their loot.
Do not forget to mention the Tlaxcalans; examiners emphasize that without the refuge provided by these indigenous allies, the Spanish would have been completely wiped out after fleeing the city.
Tenochtitlan
The island capital city of the Aztec Empire.
Quetzalcoatl
A Mesoamerican deity; the Aztecs initially believed Cortés might be this returning god.
Moctezuma II
The Emperor of the Aztec Empire when the Spanish arrived, later taken hostage by Cortés.
Quauhpopoca
The Aztec noble whose actions at Veracruz gave Cortés the pretext to arrest Moctezuma.
Hostage
A person seized or held as security for the fulfilment of a condition.
Palace of Axayácatl
The royal residence in Tenochtitlan where the Spanish were housed and Moctezuma was imprisoned.
Puppet ruler
A leader who retains their formal title but is actually controlled by an external power.
Emperor Charles V
The King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor to whom Moctezuma was forced to swear allegiance.
Totoloque
A traditional Aztec gambling game played with gold pellets, played by Cortés and Moctezuma during his captivity.
Cuitláhuac
Moctezuma's brother who was elected as the new Aztec leader during the Spanish occupation.
Huey Tlatoani
The Nahuatl term for the Aztec Emperor, meaning "Great Speaker".
Festival of Toxcatl
A major Aztec religious ceremony during which the Massacre in the Great Temple took place.
Pánfilo de Narváez
A rival Spanish commander whom Cortés left Tenochtitlan to fight on the coast.
Pedro de Alvarado
Cortés's second-in-command who ordered the Massacre in the Great Temple while Cortés was absent.
Sacred Patio
The walled area surrounding the Templo Mayor where the massacre of unarmed Aztec nobles occurred.
Massacre in the Great Temple
The unprovoked slaughter of thousands of unarmed Aztec elites by Spanish forces on 22 May 1520.
Florentine Codex
A primary source manuscript compiled from indigenous oral histories, detailing the Aztec perspective of the conquest.
La Noche Triste
"The Night of Sorrows" – the disastrous Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan on the night of 30 June 1520.
Tacuba causeway
The raised road out of Tenochtitlan used by the Spanish during their escape.
Tlaxcalans
Crucial indigenous allies who fought alongside the Spanish and provided them with refuge after La Noche Triste.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History B
Tenochtitlan
The island capital city of the Aztec Empire.
Quetzalcoatl
A Mesoamerican deity; the Aztecs initially believed Cortés might be this returning god.
Moctezuma II
The Emperor of the Aztec Empire when the Spanish arrived, later taken hostage by Cortés.
Quauhpopoca
The Aztec noble whose actions at Veracruz gave Cortés the pretext to arrest Moctezuma.
Hostage
A person seized or held as security for the fulfilment of a condition.
Palace of Axayácatl
The royal residence in Tenochtitlan where the Spanish were housed and Moctezuma was imprisoned.
Puppet ruler
A leader who retains their formal title but is actually controlled by an external power.
Emperor Charles V
The King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor to whom Moctezuma was forced to swear allegiance.
Totoloque
A traditional Aztec gambling game played with gold pellets, played by Cortés and Moctezuma during his captivity.
Cuitláhuac
Moctezuma's brother who was elected as the new Aztec leader during the Spanish occupation.
Huey Tlatoani
The Nahuatl term for the Aztec Emperor, meaning "Great Speaker".
Festival of Toxcatl
A major Aztec religious ceremony during which the Massacre in the Great Temple took place.
Pánfilo de Narváez
A rival Spanish commander whom Cortés left Tenochtitlan to fight on the coast.
Pedro de Alvarado
Cortés's second-in-command who ordered the Massacre in the Great Temple while Cortés was absent.
Sacred Patio
The walled area surrounding the Templo Mayor where the massacre of unarmed Aztec nobles occurred.
Massacre in the Great Temple
The unprovoked slaughter of thousands of unarmed Aztec elites by Spanish forces on 22 May 1520.
Florentine Codex
A primary source manuscript compiled from indigenous oral histories, detailing the Aztec perspective of the conquest.
La Noche Triste
"The Night of Sorrows" – the disastrous Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan on the night of 30 June 1520.
Tacuba causeway
The raised road out of Tenochtitlan used by the Spanish during their escape.
Tlaxcalans
Crucial indigenous allies who fought alongside the Spanish and provided them with refuge after La Noche Triste.
