OCR GCSE History A (J410) — Non-British Depth Studies
Imagine picking up a book that puts into words a frustration you thought only you felt. In 1963, Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, identifying the widespread dissatisfaction of middle-class housewives and famously calling it "the problem that has no name". This groundbreaking publication is widely credited with sparking second-wave feminism, shifting the focus from voting rights to domesticity, reproductive autonomy, and workplace equality. Around the same time, the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women revealed stark economic inequalities, noting that women held only 5% of managerial roles and earned significantly less than men.
The early 1960s saw significant legal milestones for women's rights in the workplace. The Equal Pay Act 1963, signed by President John F. Kennedy, legally mandated "equal pay for equal work". However, it initially excluded many sectors like hospitality and agriculture, meaning a severe wage gap persisted where for every $1.00 a man earned, a woman earned roughly $0.60:
To push for the enforcement of these laws and the 1964 Civil Rights Act (which banned sex discrimination in employment), Betty Friedan and 27 others founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) in June 1966. By the end of the decade, NOW had grown to around 40,000 members.
NOW organised large-scale demonstrations, such as the Women's Strike for Equality in 1970, which saw 50,000 women march in New York. Other activists used more radical tactics, famously protesting the 1968 Miss America pageant to generate national publicity. Educational and economic rights further expanded with Title IX in 1972, which forced all-male colleges to admit women and mandated equal funding for female sports, and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act in 1974, which ended the requirement for women to have a male co-signer for credit applications.
Before 1973, abortion was illegal in 30 US states, and dangerous "backstreet" abortions accounted for 17% of all pregnancy-related deaths in 1965. The landmark Supreme Court ruling Roe v. Wade on 22 January 1973 fundamentally changed this landscape. The Court ruled 7–2 that the 14th Amendment implied a Right to Privacy, which protected a woman's right to choose to have an abortion.
The ruling established a trimester framework: states could not interfere during the first trimester, could regulate for maternal health in the second, and could prohibit abortion in the third (the point of fetal viability). This ruling was a massive social victory for the women's movement, granting bodily autonomy that enabled greater workforce and educational participation. However, it also sparked a fierce conservative backlash, leading to the formation of the National Right to Life Committee and the eventual 1976 Hyde Amendment, which banned federal funding for abortions.
When evaluating the overall impact of the women's movement by 1974, historians weigh significant legal triumphs against ongoing systemic barriers and political resistance. On one hand, legislation like Title IX and the Roe v. Wade decision fundamentally transformed women's personal and professional lives. On the other hand, the movement failed to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which required ratification by 38 states but stalled at 35.
This legislative defeat was heavily influenced by the STOP ERA campaign led by conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly, who successfully argued the amendment would eliminate protective laws for housewives and lead to women in combat. Furthermore, progress was hampered by internal divisions, as NOW was often criticised for being too focused on the concerns of white, middle-class women. Political opposition also remained a major hurdle, highlighted when President Nixon vetoed the Comprehensive Child Development Act in 1972, which would have provided federally funded childcare. Consequently, economic barriers remained; women continued to be clustered in low-paid pink-collar jobs, and an invisible glass ceiling of prejudice prevented them from reaching corporate executive positions.
Ultimately, the feminist movement by 1974 had achieved a legal and social revolution that fundamentally altered the status of women in the USA. While the failure of the ERA and the persistence of the "glass ceiling" showed that legislation could not immediately erase deep-seated social prejudice, the movement successfully shifted the national consciousness. By securing reproductive rights and educational equality, it transformed women from passive figures of domesticity into active participants in professional and public life, establishing a legal framework for equality that, although incomplete, was irreversible.
Sometimes, a single night of resistance can ignite a nationwide push for liberation. Prior to 1969, the LGBTQ+ community in the USA faced severe police harassment, with laws in New York requiring individuals to wear at least three articles of clothing matching their assigned sex. Earlier activism, known as the Homophile Movement, focused on "respectability politics" and cautious assimilation into mainstream society.
This conservative approach changed dramatically on 28 June 1969. A routine police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a Mafia-run gay bar in New York City that served as a safe space for marginalised LGBTQ+ people, triggered a spontaneous uprising. Patrons, including key figures like Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, fought back against the police using coins, bottles, and bricks, sparking protests that lasted for six days.
The Stonewall riots functioned as a crucial turning point, transforming a hidden subculture into a highly visible, politically active movement. Within weeks, activists formed the Gay Liberation Front (GLF), which abandoned assimilation tactics in favour of demanding a total transformation of society. The GLF drew inspiration from the Black Power and anti-colonial movements, demonstrating a strong civil rights intersectionality with their confrontational slogan: "Out of the closets and into the streets."
The political visibility generated by Stonewall led to rapid, tangible progress. On the first anniversary of the riots in 1970, the Christopher Street Liberation Day march took place, marking the first modern Pride march. The number of gay organisations exploded from around 50 in 1969 to over 2,500 by 1971, creating enough pressure that the American Psychiatric Association officially removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders in 1973.
Students often confuse the goals of first-wave feminism (voting rights/suffrage) with second-wave feminism (workplace equality, domesticity, and reproductive rights).
For 'Evaluate' questions on the feminist movement, ensure you provide a balanced judgement by weighing legal successes like Title IX against persistent failures, such as the failure to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Avoid just listing facts; explain WHY the impact was limited or significant.
When explaining the significance of Stonewall, examiners want to see a clear causal link: explain how the riots directly caused a shift from the quiet 'Homophile' movement to the radical, visible action of the GLF and the explosion of pride organisations.
Remember to distinguish between contraception rulings and abortion; Roe v. Wade (1973) specifically legalised abortion based on a right to privacy, whereas earlier cases (e.g. Eisenstadt v. Baird) dealt with birth control.
Second-wave feminism
A period of feminist activity starting in the early 1960s that focused on social issues such as domesticity, reproductive rights, and workplace inequality.
Equal Pay Act 1963
A 1963 US law that mandated equal pay for equal work in jobs requiring equal skill, effort, and responsibility.
National Organization for Women (NOW)
A major feminist organisation founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others to advocate for women's equality in employment, education, and politics.
Title IX
A 1972 law prohibiting sex discrimination in federally funded education, which opened up colleges and sports funding for women.
Equal Credit Opportunity Act
A 1974 law that prevented banks from discriminating based on sex or marital status, ending the need for women to have male co-signers for credit.
Roe v. Wade
The landmark 1973 Supreme Court case that legalised abortion across all 50 states based on a constitutional right to privacy.
Right to Privacy
A legal principle inferred from the 14th Amendment that protects an individual's right to make personal decisions without government interference.
Fetal viability
The point in a pregnancy at which a fetus can survive outside the womb, generally considered 24–28 weeks in the 1970s.
Ratification
The official confirmation of a proposed law; for US Constitutional amendments, 38 state legislatures must approve it.
STOP ERA
The 'Stop Taking Our Privileges' campaign led by Phyllis Schlafly to prevent the ratification of the ERA, arguing it would hurt housewives.
Comprehensive Child Development Act
A law vetoed by President Nixon in 1972 that would have established a national network of federally funded childcare centers.
Pink-collar jobs
Low-paid, service-sector roles traditionally held by women, such as secretarial work or nursing.
Glass ceiling
An invisible barrier based on prejudice that prevents women from rising to the upper levels of corporate leadership.
Homophile Movement
Pre-1969 LGBTQ+ activism that focused on 'respectability politics' and trying to fit into mainstream society.
Stonewall Inn
A Greenwich Village bar that was the site of the 1969 riots, widely considered the catalyst for the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.
Gay Liberation Front (GLF)
A radical organisation formed after Stonewall that shifted the movement from assimilation to political liberation and confrontation.
Christopher Street Liberation Day
The June 1970 march held on the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots, marking the first modern Pride march.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History A
Second-wave feminism
A period of feminist activity starting in the early 1960s that focused on social issues such as domesticity, reproductive rights, and workplace inequality.
Equal Pay Act 1963
A 1963 US law that mandated equal pay for equal work in jobs requiring equal skill, effort, and responsibility.
National Organization for Women (NOW)
A major feminist organisation founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others to advocate for women's equality in employment, education, and politics.
Title IX
A 1972 law prohibiting sex discrimination in federally funded education, which opened up colleges and sports funding for women.
Equal Credit Opportunity Act
A 1974 law that prevented banks from discriminating based on sex or marital status, ending the need for women to have male co-signers for credit.
Roe v. Wade
The landmark 1973 Supreme Court case that legalised abortion across all 50 states based on a constitutional right to privacy.
Right to Privacy
A legal principle inferred from the 14th Amendment that protects an individual's right to make personal decisions without government interference.
Fetal viability
The point in a pregnancy at which a fetus can survive outside the womb, generally considered 24–28 weeks in the 1970s.
Ratification
The official confirmation of a proposed law; for US Constitutional amendments, 38 state legislatures must approve it.
STOP ERA
The 'Stop Taking Our Privileges' campaign led by Phyllis Schlafly to prevent the ratification of the ERA, arguing it would hurt housewives.
Comprehensive Child Development Act
A law vetoed by President Nixon in 1972 that would have established a national network of federally funded childcare centers.
Pink-collar jobs
Low-paid, service-sector roles traditionally held by women, such as secretarial work or nursing.
Glass ceiling
An invisible barrier based on prejudice that prevents women from rising to the upper levels of corporate leadership.
Homophile Movement
Pre-1969 LGBTQ+ activism that focused on 'respectability politics' and trying to fit into mainstream society.
Stonewall Inn
A Greenwich Village bar that was the site of the 1969 riots, widely considered the catalyst for the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.
Gay Liberation Front (GLF)
A radical organisation formed after Stonewall that shifted the movement from assimilation to political liberation and confrontation.
Christopher Street Liberation Day
The June 1970 march held on the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots, marking the first modern Pride march.
