OCR GCSE History A (J410) — Non-British Depth Studies
Imagine going to the bank to withdraw your life savings, only to find the doors permanently locked. Between 1929 and 1933, exactly this happened to 9 million Americans as 11,000 of the nation's 25,000 banks vanished. The economic collapse triggered a devastating chain reaction that tore through American society.
Total industrial production fell by 45%, with specific sectors like car manufacturing plummeting by 80%. This industrial collapse drove Unemployment to a peak of 24.9% (approximately 13 to 14 million people) by 1933. In heavily industrialised cities like Toledo, unemployment reached an astonishing 80%.
To analyse the causal link between the economic crash and these social outcomes, historians use a concept called The Cycle of Depression (or the vicious cycle):
Step 2: Overproduction — Factories were left with surplus stock they could not sell.
Step 3: Redundancies — To save money, factories cut production and sacked workers.
Step 4: Reduced Spending Power — Sacked workers had even less money, further lowering national demand and restarting the cycle.
The social effects were catastrophic. By 1932, over 250,000 families had their homes repossessed. Homeless citizens were forced to build shanty towns out of cardboard and scrap wood. These became sarcastically known as Hoovervilles, reflecting the public's blame on the President. Major encampments appeared in prominent locations, including Central Park in New York City and Anacostia Flats in Washington D.C.
In rural America, agricultural prices dropped so low that shipping costs exceeded sale prices (e.g., it cost $1.10 to ship a sheep that would sell for under $1.00). Between 1929 and 1932, 750,000 farmers lost their land. This was worsened by the Dust Bowl, where severe drought and "Black Blizzards" devastated 100 million acres across the Great Plains, forcing 1 million "Okies" to migrate west toward California.
Why would a President refuse to hand out government money while millions of citizens lost their homes? President Herbert Hoover did not want people to suffer, but his political philosophy severely limited his response to the crisis.
Hoover believed in Rugged Individualism, the idea that people should succeed through self-reliance rather than relying on state support. He also championed Laissez-faire economics, arguing the government should maintain a "hands-off" approach to the free market. Consequently, Hoover deeply opposed creating a national welfare system or giving out The Dole, believing it would destroy a person's work ethic and self-respect.
Instead of legislation, Hoover relied on Volunteerism. He established committees like the President’s Emergency Committee for Employment (PECE) to coordinate private charity. However, volunteerism failed because the sheer scale of the Depression rapidly outpaced what private charities could afford.
Hoover was not entirely inactive. He doubled public works spending to $4 billion, notably commissioning the $49 million Hoover Dam. In 1932, he established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), providing $2 billion in loans to banks and railroads. However, this "trickle-down" approach failed to help ordinary citizens. By vetoing direct relief bills (like the Garner-Wagner Relief Bill), Hoover cemented his image as a "do-nothing" President out of touch with the people's suffering.
A government's treatment of its veterans often defines its public image, and in 1932, Hoover made a fatal political miscalculation.
Between May and July 1932, between 15,000 and 25,000 First World War veterans marched on Washington D.C. They were officially known as the Bonus Expeditionary Force, but the press called them the Bonus Army. They demanded the early payment of a $1,000 war bonus that was not legally due until 1945 (nicknamed the "Tombstone Bonus").
When the Senate rejected a bill to pay the bonuses early, Hoover ordered General Douglas MacArthur to evict the veterans from their camps. The military used tanks, fixed bayonets, and Adamsite tear gas against the peaceful protesters. Two veterans were shot and killed, an infant died from tear gas inhalation, and at least 1,000 were injured as their camps were burned to the ground. Newsreels of the brutal eviction shocked the nation and acted as the final "nail in the coffin" for Hoover's presidency.
Elections during a crisis often come down to a choice between the grim present and a hopeful future. The November 1932 election was a stark contrast between the deeply unpopular incumbent, Herbert Hoover, and the charismatic Democratic challenger, Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR).
FDR directed his campaign at the Forgotten Man — the ordinary citizens, farmers, and workers at the bottom of the economic pyramid who felt ignored by Hoover. Advised by a group of academic experts known as the Brain Trust, FDR promised the country a New Deal, which included plans for relief, recovery, and reform.
| Feature | Herbert Hoover's Campaign | Franklin D. Roosevelt's Campaign |
|---|---|---|
| Campaign Style | Passive and defensive. Perceived as "grim" and "dour". He did not begin campaigning until October 1932 and mostly stayed in the White House. | Highly energetic and active. Travelled up to 13,000 miles by train (the "Roosevelt Special") and delivered up to 15 speeches a day. |
| Key Promises | Defended his record. Blamed the Depression on "international factors" outside of America's control. Called FDR a "chameleon on plaid". | Promised a "New Deal". Pledged to repeal Prohibition (the 18th Amendment), restore purchasing power for farmers, and protect small banks. |
| Public Image | Associated with failure, the brutality of the Bonus Army eviction, and a lack of empathy for the poor. | Projected strength and optimism. He flew to Chicago to accept the nomination in person, showing vitality despite suffering from polio. |
On 8th November 1932, FDR won a historic Landslide victory. He secured 22.8 million popular votes (57.4%) and 472 Electoral College votes across 42 states. Hoover won only 15.7 million votes and a mere 6 states, decisively ending his political career.
Students often claim Hoover did 'nothing' during the Depression; examiners expect you to mention his active policies like the RFC and Hoover Dam, explaining that his failure was due to the limits of his ideology, not total inaction.
When answering the command word 'Analyse' regarding the effects of the Depression, you must explicitly link the economic trigger (e.g. bank failures) to the social outcome (e.g. homelessness) using the 'Cycle of Depression'.
In 4-mark 'Describe' questions about the 1932 election, explicitly contrast the 'active' campaign of FDR (travelling 13,000 miles by train) with the 'passive' approach of Hoover to secure top marks.
Use specific historical terminology like 'The Dole' and 'Rugged Individualism' in your answers rather than vague phrases like 'government handouts' or 'being independent'.
Unemployment
The percentage of the labor force that is jobless; in the USA, this rose from 3% in 1929 to nearly 25% (approx. 13–14 million people) by 1933.
The Cycle of Depression
An economic process where low demand leads to overproduction, resulting in redundancies, which further reduces spending power and demand.
Hoovervilles
A sarcastic name given to the shanty towns made of cardboard and scrap wood built by homeless people during the Great Depression.
Herbert Hoover
The 31st President of the USA (1929–1933) who was widely blamed for the Depression due to his 'Rugged Individualism' and perceived inaction.
Rugged Individualism
President Hoover's philosophy that individuals should succeed through self-reliance and hard work rather than relying on government support.
Laissez-faire
An economic policy where the government takes a 'hands-off' approach and avoids interfering in the free market.
The Dole
A derogatory term used during the 1930s for direct government financial relief or welfare payments.
Volunteerism
Hoover's policy of encouraging businesses and private charities to cooperate voluntarily to provide relief, rather than using federal legislation.
Bonus Expeditionary Force
The formal name for the thousands of First World War veterans who marched on Washington D.C. in 1932 to demand early payment of their war bonuses.
Bonus Army
The popular name for the Bonus Expeditionary Force marchers whose forceful eviction from Washington D.C. by the military destroyed Hoover's popularity.
Adamsite
A specific, highly toxic type of tear gas used by the US military to forcefully evict the Bonus Army from their camps in 1932.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
The 32nd President of the USA (1933–1945), commonly known as FDR, who won a landslide victory in 1932 by promising a 'New Deal'.
Forgotten Man
A term used by FDR in his 1932 campaign to describe the ordinary citizens, farmers, and workers at the bottom of the economic ladder.
Brain Trust
A group of academic advisors and experts who helped Franklin D. Roosevelt formulate the policies of the New Deal.
New Deal
Franklin D. Roosevelt's comprehensive programme of Relief, Recovery, and Reform designed to solve the problems of the Great Depression.
Landslide
An election victory in which one candidate receives an overwhelming majority of the votes, as seen in FDR's 1932 win.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History A
Unemployment
The percentage of the labor force that is jobless; in the USA, this rose from 3% in 1929 to nearly 25% (approx. 13–14 million people) by 1933.
The Cycle of Depression
An economic process where low demand leads to overproduction, resulting in redundancies, which further reduces spending power and demand.
Hoovervilles
A sarcastic name given to the shanty towns made of cardboard and scrap wood built by homeless people during the Great Depression.
Herbert Hoover
The 31st President of the USA (1929–1933) who was widely blamed for the Depression due to his 'Rugged Individualism' and perceived inaction.
Rugged Individualism
President Hoover's philosophy that individuals should succeed through self-reliance and hard work rather than relying on government support.
Laissez-faire
An economic policy where the government takes a 'hands-off' approach and avoids interfering in the free market.
The Dole
A derogatory term used during the 1930s for direct government financial relief or welfare payments.
Volunteerism
Hoover's policy of encouraging businesses and private charities to cooperate voluntarily to provide relief, rather than using federal legislation.
Bonus Expeditionary Force
The formal name for the thousands of First World War veterans who marched on Washington D.C. in 1932 to demand early payment of their war bonuses.
Bonus Army
The popular name for the Bonus Expeditionary Force marchers whose forceful eviction from Washington D.C. by the military destroyed Hoover's popularity.
Adamsite
A specific, highly toxic type of tear gas used by the US military to forcefully evict the Bonus Army from their camps in 1932.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
The 32nd President of the USA (1933–1945), commonly known as FDR, who won a landslide victory in 1932 by promising a 'New Deal'.
Forgotten Man
A term used by FDR in his 1932 campaign to describe the ordinary citizens, farmers, and workers at the bottom of the economic ladder.
Brain Trust
A group of academic advisors and experts who helped Franklin D. Roosevelt formulate the policies of the New Deal.
New Deal
Franklin D. Roosevelt's comprehensive programme of Relief, Recovery, and Reform designed to solve the problems of the Great Depression.
Landslide
An election victory in which one candidate receives an overwhelming majority of the votes, as seen in FDR's 1932 win.
