Total War: Britain in WWI and WWII

World War I and the Growth of State Power

Just four days after Britain entered World War I, Parliament permanently changed the relationship between the state and its citizens without a single debate. On 8 August 1914, the government passed DORA (Defence of the Realm Act). This gave the state wide-ranging emergency powers to bypass Parliament and was amended six times to steadily increase government authority. Economically, the state took direct control of coal mines, railways, and shipping to ensure the war effort did not stall.

The Ministry of Munitions, established in 1915, eventually controlled over 20,000 factories. British Summer Time (BST) was even introduced in May 1916 to maximise daylight hours for industrial and agricultural production.

For civilians, DORA meant strict social control and censorship. Newspapers and soldiers' letters were censored to maintain morale and security. The state also banned seemingly trivial activities to prevent panic or distraction, including flying kites, whistling for taxis, ringing church bells, and—under Regulation 9DD—holding dog shows. To ensure factory workers remained productive, pub opening hours were restricted (12:00–14:30 and 18:30–21:30) and beer was intentionally diluted.

Forcing Men to Fight in WWI

Imagine 200,000 people gathering in Trafalgar Square to protest against their own government during a fight for national survival. This happened in April 1916 because the state had taken the ultimate step of forcing men into the military. Initially, recruitment was voluntary, with Lord Kitchener's campaign and the Derby Scheme raising hundreds of thousands of men. However, falling numbers forced the government to introduce Conscription.

The Military Service Act of January 1916 forced single men aged 18 to 41 to enlist, expanding to married men in May, and eventually raising the age limit to 51 in 1918. Crucially, this law did not apply to Ireland due to political tensions following the 1916 Easter Rising. In total, approximately 2.5 million men were conscripted.

Not everyone was forced to the trenches. Men in Reserved Occupations—such as coal miners, farmers, and railway workers—were exempt because their work was vital to keeping the home front functioning. Additionally, around 16,000 men registered as a Conscientious Objector, refusing to fight on moral or religious grounds. While many did non-combatant work, those refusing all war work (absolutists) were imprisoned.

Keeping Britain Fed in WWI

By early 1918, German submarine warfare had left Britain with only six weeks' worth of wheat. The U-boat blockade was sinking one in four merchant ships, creating a severe food security crisis. Voluntary rationing introduced in February 1917 failed to stop people hoarding food.

To prevent starvation, compulsory rationing was introduced in early 1918 for sugar, butter, margarine, and meat. Notably, bread was not rationed, though the government strictly controlled its quality, phasing out white flour. To boost domestic food production, the Women’s Land Army (WLA) was formed in March 1917, placing 260,000 women into agricultural labour.

The government also actively sought civilian financial support through campaigns like "Feed the Guns" and Tank Banks, where real tanks toured cities to sell War Bonds. Despite the hardships, the health of the poorest citizens actually improved during WWI, as rationing guaranteed them a "fair share" of essential proteins and fats.

World War II and the "Total Disposal" of Citizens

If a police officer stopped you on the street in 1940, you were legally required to prove exactly who you were. The government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act in August 1939, right before WWII began. By May 1940, this was extended to require all citizens to place themselves, their services, and their property entirely at the King's disposal.

The government ruled through Defence Regulations, bypassing standard parliamentary votes. The National Registration Act of 1939 mandated identity cards for everyone. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Information expanded rapidly, taking complete control of news and censorship to maintain the spirit of a "People's War".

Civil liberties were heavily restricted. Defence Regulation 18B allowed the state to intern people without trial if they were suspected of having "hostile associations" (such as British Union of Fascists leader Sir Oswald Mosley). This effectively suspended Habeas Corpus, a foundational legal right.

Labour and military service were totally controlled. The National Service Act of December 1941 extended conscription to all men aged 18–51 and single women aged 20–30. Furthermore, under the Bevin Boys scheme, 10% of young male conscripts were selected by lottery and forced to work in coal mines instead of the military.

WWII Rationing and the Home Front

You could not buy a new shirt, a bar of soap, or a bag of coal without handing over a government coupon first. Rationing in WWII was far more comprehensive than in WWI, beginning in January 1940. The Ministry of Food issued colour-coded ration books, and by December 1941, introduced a points system for tinned goods and cereals.

To save crucial shipping space, white bread was banned and replaced by The National Loaf, a mandatory high-fibre brown bread. Civilians were encouraged to grow their own food in public parks and gardens through the Dig for Victory propaganda campaign.

Just as in WWI, government intervention drastically improved public health. Infant mortality fell, life expectancy rose, and children received free orange juice and cod-liver oil. State provision expanded massively: school meals grew from 160,000 in 1939 to 1.6 million by 1945, and cheap "British Restaurants" fed those who had been bombed out of their homes.

Evaluating the Impact: WWI vs WWII

How do we judge whether this massive expansion of government power was a temporary necessity or a permanent loss of freedom? To evaluate the impact of Total War, we must compare how state power evolved between the two conflicts.

Feature	World War I (DORA)	World War II (Emergency Powers)
Preparation	Passed 4 days after war began.	Passed before war began (Aug 1939).
Scope of Power	Significant, focused on defence/industry.	"Total disposal" of all people and property.
Conscription	Men only (starting 1916).	Men and women (starting 1941).
Identity & Labour	No ID cards; labour directed mainly by pay.	Mandatory ID cards; Bevin Boys lottery forced men to mines.
Continuity	Most powers ended shortly after the war.	Rationing lasted until 1954; many regulations stayed until 1964.

Arguments for State Control: Extreme state power was essential for survival against the U-boat blockades and the Blitz. Government control ensured a "fair share" through rationing, which kept civilian morale high and actually improved the health of the poorest. Only a centralised state could rapidly shift the economy to war production.

Arguments against State Control: Critics argue that the government created a "Commissary Dictatorship" that ruled by decree rather than democracy. Censorship manipulated public opinion, and civil liberties were severely damaged—most notably through the suspension of Habeas Corpus under Regulation 18B, which allowed imprisonment without trial.

Conclusion: Overall, WWI represented the turning point where the state first took total control, while WWII was the peak of this trend. The government operated as a "pragmatic dictatorship"—seizing absolute power but using propaganda and fair rationing to ensure public consent. Ultimately, the shared civilian sacrifice and the state's success in providing health and security during Total War led directly to the creation of the post-war Welfare State (1945–1948). The relationship between the state and its citizens was changed forever.