Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos: Biographical Sources

Because they wrote centuries after the events, both authors are considered "late sources". They relied heavily on hindsight and earlier texts, meaning they provide immense value regarding how these figures were remembered, but require careful evaluation when reconstructing exact historical timelines.

Evaluating Plutarch's Reliability

It is tempting to dismiss a source written 500 years after the fact, but doing so means losing valuable access to older, lost traditions. Evaluating Plutarch requires balancing his specific agenda against his rigorous use of research.

On the one hand, Plutarch explicitly stated he was "writing biography, not history". He produced Moralising History, meaning his primary goal was to provide ethical examples of Arete (virtue) to imitate or Kakia (vice) to avoid. This means he frequently used anecdotal evidence and idealised direct speech to highlight the "signs of the soul" rather than comprehensive political facts.

However, Plutarch was not an uncritical writer. He had access to earlier sources that are now lost, and he frequently included details that complicated his own moral narratives.

• He cited conflicting evidence, such as referencing Demetrius of Phalerum to prove Aristides was actually wealthy, despite the dominant tradition claiming he died in poverty.
• He used hostile sources, such as Stesimbrotus of Thasos, to show the negative political consequences of Themistocles' naval reforms.
• He did not shy away from the darker sides of his heroes, recording a horrifying incident via Phanias the Lesbian where Themistocles was forced by a hysterical mob to perform human sacrifice at Salamis.

Ultimately, while Plutarch's chronology and moral framing must be treated with caution, his willingness to include "minority reports" and cite his sources makes him highly useful for reconstructing a nuanced picture of these Athenian leaders.

Cornelius Nepos on Miltiades

A leader's greatest victory can sometimes be the very thing that triggers their ultimate downfall. Nepos provides a detailed, sequential narrative of Miltiades' life, tracking his rise in the Chersonese to his disgrace in Athens.

First, Nepos describes Miltiades establishing a colony in the Chersonese. Despite holding absolute power, Nepos characterises him as a Tyrannus who ruled justly by the consent of the governed. During the Scythian expedition, Miltiades guarded a bridge over the River Ister and advised the Greeks to destroy it to trap the Persian King Darius. He was overruled by other leaders who relied on Persian support to maintain their power.

Next, Nepos details Miltiades' decisive role at the Battle of Marathon. He describes the vast Persian force of 200,000 infantry and 500 ships, contrasted against just 10,000 Greek hoplites (including 1,000 Plataeans). Nepos specifically notes that Miltiades used a "tract of trees" to protect the Greek flanks from Persian cavalry — a tactical detail absent from other sources like Herodotus. Nepos also mentions the runner Phidippides, a Hemerodromoi, who was sent to Sparta for help.

Finally, Nepos recounts Miltiades' rapid fall from grace. After failing to capture Paros with a 70-ship fleet, he was accused of treason and fined 50 talents. Nepos argues this punishment was driven by the Athenians' deep-seated "fear of tyranny" leftover from the Peisistratids; they preferred to see an innocent man suffer in a public prison rather than risk living in fear of his immense popularity.

Characterising Themistocles: Ambition and the Navy

Imagine being so envious of another person's success that it literally keeps you awake at night. Both Nepos and Plutarch agree that extreme ambition was the defining trait of Themistocles, though they present his early life differently.

• Nepos describes a youth of wild lawlessness that led his father to disinherit him. This deep disgrace acted as a catalyst, spurring him to prove his worth through intense political ambition.
• Plutarch focuses on his middle-class background at the Cynosarges and attributes his drive to Philotimia (extreme ambition). Plutarch notes that Themistocles was so jealous of Miltiades' victory at Marathon that the commander's trophy "would not let him sleep".

Both biographers detail his crucial naval policy. Themistocles convinced Athens to stop distributing silver from the Laurion mines and instead build a fleet, using a war against Aegina as a pretext. Notably, Nepos claims he built 100 ships, whereas Plutarch records 200. Themistocles' strategic genius peaked when he interpreted the Delphic Oracle's "wooden walls" as the navy, and deliberately sent a deceptive message to the Persian King to force a battle in the narrow straits of Salamis. Despite this brilliance, both sources note his moral flaws, particularly his greed and willingness to use bribery.

Characterising Aristides: The Just Man

A nickname can tell you a lot about a person's reputation, but earning a flawless one can sometimes make you powerful enemies. Aristides is presented by both authors as the ultimate embodiment of Dikaiosyne (justice) and Innocentia (freedom from corruption).

Nepos states that Aristides' impeccable reputation caused immense political envy, which directly led to his Ostracism in 482/3 BC. Plutarch expands on this with a famous anecdote: an illiterate citizen, not recognising Aristides, asked him to write "Aristides" on his voting shard simply because he was "tired of hearing him called 'The Just'." Aristides silently complied, illustrating both his profound self-control and the dangerous fickleness of the Athenian populace.

Despite his exile, Aristides returned to play pivotal roles. He fought at Salamis, commanded the Athenian forces at Plataea, and was entrusted with assessing the financial contributions for the Delian League. Both authors emphasise that his fairness stood in stark contrast to the arrogant Spartan commanders, though Plutarch notes the ongoing debate over whether he died a wealthy Pentacosiomedimni or so poor the state had to pay for his daughters' dowries.

Archaeological Evidence: The Ostraka Hoards

Physical objects pulled from the ground can completely change how we read written texts. While Plutarch's anecdotes suggest ostracism was a spontaneous expression of popular feeling, archaeological evidence paints a more organised picture.

Over 11,000 physical voting shards, or Ostrakon, have been recovered from the Agora and the Kerameikos in Athens. The most significant discovery is the "North Slope Hoard" — a collection of 190 ostraka bearing the name of Themistocles found in a well.

Crucially, handwriting analysis revealed these 190 shards were written by only 14 distinct hands. This suggests that political factions pre-prepared ballots to distribute to illiterate or undecided voters. When evaluating the literary sources, you can use this archaeological evidence to argue that ostracism was often a highly organised political manoeuvre, challenging the biographers' heavy focus on individual character and spontaneous mass envy.