OCR GCSE Ancient History (J198) — Britannia: Conquest to Province
When reading ancient history, it is tempting to treat written sources like modern news reports, but ancient authors often cared more about telling a good story or making a political point than recording objective facts. Cornelius Tacitus was a Roman senator writing in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD. As the son-in-law of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, a former governor of Britain, he had a deeply personal connection to the province.
Tacitus wrote during the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, a period he viewed as one of political "freedom". He frequently contrasted this with the "tyranny" of the previous emperor, Domitian. To fully analyse Tacitus’ portrayal of the Roman conquest, we must understand how his political biases and literary goals shaped his three main works.
Tacitus used different works to explore different periods and themes of Roman history. Each had a specific purpose that influenced how he wrote about Britain:
Tacitus is famous for prioritising psychological insight and dramatic effect over precise chronological reporting. He wanted to teach moral lessons to his Roman audience.
He frequently employed Brevity (Brevitas), using short, punchy sentences to create a fast-paced narrative or deliver a deep moral judgment. To keep readers engaged, he used Variatio, deliberately altering his sentence structures and vocabulary. When discussing political figures he disliked, particularly Domitian or ineffective governors, he often relied on Innuendo—suggesting malicious motives without stating them as outright facts.
A major pattern in Tacitus' writing is his harsh critique of Roman moral decline. He frequently blames rebellions on Roman vices. For example, in the Annals, he states the Boudiccan revolt was caused by Roman greed and lust, highlighting the seizure of Icenian lands and the abuse of Boudicca’s family.
To further shame his Roman readers, Tacitus frequently uses the Noble Savage Trope. He portrays British resistance leaders, such as Caratacus and Boudicca, as incredibly brave, articulate, and uncorrupted by luxury. By making the "barbarian" enemies look heroic, he highlights how far Rome had fallen from its own traditional virtues.
This critique extends to the concept of Romanization. While Agricola encouraged Britons to adopt the Latin language, togas, and bathhouses, Tacitus famously noted that the Britons called this "civilization," when it was actually a "factor of their slavery."
Tacitus' biases shape how he records specific phases of the conquest:
Before the Battle of Mons Graupius in the Agricola, the Caledonian leader Calgacus delivers a passionate anti-Roman speech, famously stating: "To robbery, slaughter, plunder, they give the lying name of empire; they make a solitude and call it peace."
Task: Evaluate the reliability of Calgacus’ speech as a historical source for British resistance.
Students often treat Tacitus' statistics (like 80,000 Britons dead at Watling Street vs 400 Romans) as factual; examiners expect you to recognise these are likely exaggerated for dramatic effect.
In source analysis questions, always link Tacitus' portrayal of British leaders (like Caratacus or Calgacus) to his overarching political goal of criticising Roman moral corruption.
Remember that the section of the Annals covering the initial AD 43 invasion is lost, so Tacitus' account of this specific event relies on brief mentions in the Agricola.
Compare Tacitus with Cassius Dio when evaluating sources: while Tacitus focuses heavily on character and moral rhetoric, Dio often provides a more straightforward chronological structure.
Encomium
A speech or piece of writing that praises someone highly; Tacitus' Agricola is categorised as an encomiastic biography.
Brevity (Brevitas)
A hallmark of Tacitus’ style, using concise, punchy sentences to convey narrative pace or deliver deep moral meaning.
Variatio
A stylistic device where an author varies vocabulary and sentence structure to avoid repetition and engage the reader.
Innuendo
Suggesting a malicious motive or rumour without stating it as verified fact, frequently used by Tacitus to criticise emperors.
Noble Savage Trope
A literary device portraying foreign leaders (like Caratacus or Boudicca) as brave and eloquent to highlight the moral corruption of the author's own society.
Romanization
The process of native Britons adopting Roman culture, such as baths and the Latin language, which Tacitus viewed as a tool of subjection.
Pomerium
The sacred boundary of the city of Rome; extending it was a symbolic act demonstrating that a leader had expanded the empire.
Vexillations
Detachments of a Roman legion drafted for specific tasks or campaigns elsewhere, such as fighting in civil wars.
Declamatio
A rhetorical exercise or invented speech (such as Calgacus' address) used by ancient historians to critique their own society or explore motives.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for Ancient History
Encomium
A speech or piece of writing that praises someone highly; Tacitus' Agricola is categorised as an encomiastic biography.
Brevity (Brevitas)
A hallmark of Tacitus’ style, using concise, punchy sentences to convey narrative pace or deliver deep moral meaning.
Variatio
A stylistic device where an author varies vocabulary and sentence structure to avoid repetition and engage the reader.
Innuendo
Suggesting a malicious motive or rumour without stating it as verified fact, frequently used by Tacitus to criticise emperors.
Noble Savage Trope
A literary device portraying foreign leaders (like Caratacus or Boudicca) as brave and eloquent to highlight the moral corruption of the author's own society.
Romanization
The process of native Britons adopting Roman culture, such as baths and the Latin language, which Tacitus viewed as a tool of subjection.
Pomerium
The sacred boundary of the city of Rome; extending it was a symbolic act demonstrating that a leader had expanded the empire.
Vexillations
Detachments of a Roman legion drafted for specific tasks or campaigns elsewhere, such as fighting in civil wars.
Declamatio
A rhetorical exercise or invented speech (such as Calgacus' address) used by ancient historians to critique their own society or explore motives.
