Ancient Descriptions of Art and Architecture

Reading Athenian monuments through ancient writers

Athens’ art joined religious devotion with public displays of achievement. In the period 462–429 BC, Pericles’ building programme made the Acropolis a particularly important expression of these connections. Construction of the Parthenon, a marble temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos, began in 447 BC.

Pausanias, Pliny and Quintilian help us understand both the appearance of ancient artworks and the meanings attached to them. They were later ancient writers, not eyewitnesses to Pericles’ building programme. Their accounts therefore need careful use: describing a monument, repeating a tradition and praising an artist are different kinds of evidence.

Pausanias’ Description of Greece describes monuments alongside local religious traditions. Pliny’s Natural History preserves information and judgements about artists and their works. Quintilian’s Oratorical Education offers an assessment of artistic excellence. Together, they show how Athenian achievements were remembered, not simply how they looked when first completed.

The Parthenon’s sculptures placed Athena at the centre

In Description of Greece 1.24.5, Pausanias identifies the subjects of the Parthenon’s pediments: the birth of Athena and, at the back, her quarrel with Poseidon over the land. The east pediment showed Athena’s birth from Zeus’ head; the west showed the contest to become Athens’ patron deity.

These were more than attractive decorations. Athena’s birth established her place among the gods, while the contest connected her directly to Athens and its territory. The building’s sculpture presented the city’s relationship with its goddess as part of divine history.

To examine the prescribed reconstruction, open the OCR prescribed sources booklet at printed page 52, ‘Reconstruction of the Parthenon West Pediment’. The upper photograph shows the whole arrangement; the lower photograph enlarges its centre. Athena stands to the viewer’s left of Poseidon, who carries a trident. Their prominent central positions draw attention to the contest. Towards the ends, figures sit or recline, fitting the narrowing triangular space. This is a reconstruction of the composition, not an intact surviving pediment.

Athena Parthenos: materials, attributes and meaning

Pausanias’ descriptions in 1.24.5 and 1.24.7 provide a detailed account of the statue inside the Parthenon. Pheidias’ Athena Parthenos was made from gold and ivory. These costly materials made the statue an impressive religious offering and a display of craftsmanship and resources.

Pausanias describes Athena standing upright in a tunic reaching her feet. Her helmet had a central Sphinx and carved griffins on either side. Medousa’s head appeared on her breast in ivory. She held a figure of Victory, four cubits tall, and a spear; a shield lay at her feet. These attributes combined divine power, protection and military success. The Victory figure was itself substantial, helping convey the imposing scale of Athena.

A snake stood beside the spear. Pausanias cautiously suggests that it may be Erichthonios, a figure associated with Athens’ mythical past. The statue’s base depicted the birth of Pandora. He connects this scene to the tradition, reported by Hesiod and others, that Pandora was the first woman. These details show that the monument incorporated several myths, rather than representing an armed goddess alone.

At printed page 50 of the same booklet, examine ‘Marble Roman copy of Athena Parthenos’. The upright stance, long folded garment, helmet, small winged Victory on the outstretched hand and shield beside the body help make the written description concrete. However, this is a later marble copy. It does not preserve the original’s gold-and-ivory materials or provide a direct experience of its original scale. The copy and Pausanias’ account are complementary evidence, not interchangeable records.

The most magnificent statue was not the most sacred image

In 1.26.6, Pausanias says that both Athens and its surrounding land were sacred to Athena. Even communities called demes, which had established worship of other gods, honoured her. Athena’s importance therefore extended beyond one temple and helped connect local communities through shared devotion.

Yet he calls an older image of Athena on the Acropolis the most holy symbol, revered before the demes were unified. This was the ancient image associated with Athena Polias, distinct from Athena Parthenos. The distinction matters: expensive materials and artistic magnificence did not necessarily determine religious importance. An image’s age and inherited sacred associations could give it exceptional status.

Pausanias reports a legend that this image fell from heaven, but explicitly declines to discuss whether it was true. His account supports the existence of a sacred tradition; it does not establish a supernatural event as historical fact.

Religious buildings were settings for ritual

Pausanias 1.27.3 moves from sacred objects to religious activity. He describes two young female attendants, called the Carriers, living near the temple of Athena the Guardian. They are associated with the Arrephoroi.

At a festival, the priestess of Athena gave them objects to carry on their heads at night. Pausanias says that neither the priestess nor the girls knew what the objects were. They descended through a natural underground passage from an enclosure near Aphrodite in the Gardens, left what they carried and brought back something else, covered up. Afterwards, the girls left the Acropolis and others replaced them.

This passage shows why monuments cannot be understood only as architecture: sacred places supported recurring ceremonies and religious service. It also provides a concrete example of girls holding recognised religious responsibilities. The secrecy is part of the account, so the objects’ identity should not be invented.

Dedications connected religion with military achievement

In 1.28.2, Pausanias describes a large bronze Athena by Pheidias, known as Athena Promachos. He links its dedication to a tithe from the Persian landing at Marathon. In his account, an offering to Athena preserved the memory of victory over the Persians.

He reports that the spear tip and helmet crest could be seen by people sailing up from Sounion, presenting the statue as a conspicuous landmark. He also describes the battle of Lapiths and Centaurs on its shield: the carving was attributed to Mys, using an outline drawn by Parrhasios. This detail reveals contributions by several craftsmen rather than one artist working entirely alone.

Pausanias also lists a bronze chariot dedicated from another military tithe, a dedication of Pericles son of Xanthippos, and the Lemnian Athena, named after those who dedicated it. He considers the Lemnian Athena the work of Pheidias most worth seeing. His personal judgement reminds us that a descriptive account can also express artistic preferences.

Pliny and Quintilian reveal artistic reputation

Pliny, Natural History 34.74, names three works by Cresilas: a dying wounded man, a wounded Amazon and a Pericles worthy of being called ‘Olympian’. His praise of the wounded man focuses on the artist’s ability to convey the spirit still remaining in a dying figure. His judgement of Pericles suggests a dignified, elevated representation rather than a neutral record of appearance.

Quintilian, Oratorical Education 12.10.9, judges Pheidias better at representing gods than humans and outstanding in ivory work. He names Athena at Athens and Zeus at Olympia. In particular, he argues that the majesty of the Zeus statue enhanced traditional religious understanding of the god.

These judgements connect artistic skill with the ability to communicate character or divinity. They are valuable evidence for ancient admiration of sculpture, but claims such as ‘the best’ remain evaluations. Used alongside Pausanias’ detailed descriptions, they help explain why Athens’ monuments mattered as religious offerings, displays of achievement and celebrated works of art.