OCR GCSE Ancient History (J198) — Alexander the Great
History is often written by the victors, but sometimes it is recorded by objective stargazers. The Babylonian Astronomical Diary is a collection of cuneiform clay tablets, specifically fragments BM 36761 and BM 36390 held in the British Museum. These tablets were created by astronomers and priests at the Esagila temple in Babylon to record celestial phenomena, commodity prices, and major political events.
Because these tablets were written within days or weeks of the events they describe, they provide vital contemporary evidence for Alexander the Great's campaigns. Unlike Greek sources written centuries later, the Diary offers a rare, pro-Babylonian or neutral perspective. It anchors the chronological timeline of the Battle of Gaugamela by recording a total lunar eclipse on the 13th day of the month of Ululu (20/21 September 331 BCE), perfectly dating the battle itself to the 24th day of that same month (October 1, 331 BCE).
Understanding the collapse of the Persian army requires comparing different types of historical evidence. Greek literary narrative accounts, such as Arrian's Anabasis and Plutarch's Life of Alexander, were written roughly 400 years after the events. These sources focus heavily on heroic storytelling, claiming that Darius III cowardly fled the battlefield first in his chariot, which subsequently caused the Persian lines to break.
The Diary completely contradicts this Greek narrative. It reports that panic had already infected the Persian camp nearly two weeks before the battle. On the day of Gaugamela, the Diary explicitly states that "his troops left him" and fled to the land of the Guti, suggesting a massive failure of morale and desertion occurred before Darius retreated. Furthermore, the Babylonian scribes viewed the prior lunar eclipse as a dire omen signalling the downfall of the Persian king, providing cultural context for this collapse in morale.
When evaluating ancient sources, historians must weigh both reliability and utility to form a balanced judgement.
| Feature | Babylonian Diary (Documentary) | Arrian / Plutarch (Literary) |
|---|---|---|
| Provenance | Contemporary (331 BC), Babylonian. | 1st/2nd Century AD (centuries later), Greco-Roman. |
| Focus | Dates, omens, commodity prices. | Tactics, leadership, heroic narrative. |
| Reliability | Highly reliable (factual, neutral intent). | Variable (heavily pro-Alexander). |
| Key Detail | Persian troops deserted the King first. | Darius III fled the field first. |
Ultimately, the Diary is incredibly reliable for establishing exact dates and the authentic sequence of events because it was not written as political propaganda. However, its overall utility for military historians is limited by its physical condition. Due to lacuna (damage to the clay), the Diary lacks the detailed tactical progression of the battle that later literary sources provide.
Imagine trying to prove you are the rightful ruler of a massive, fractured empire without possessing any royal bloodline. Following Alexander’s death in 323 BC, his generals, known as the Diadochi, faced exactly this problem. To establish political legitimacy, they minted posthumous issues of silver tetradrachms—coins weighing approximately 17.2 grams on the Attic standard—that prominently featured Alexander's image.
By placing Alexander on the obverse (front) and their own names or symbols on the reverse (back), these Successors visually linked their new, independent authority to Alexander’s undeniable legacy and divine status. Over time, the inscriptions on these coins shifted to include the title Basileus alongside the Successor's own name, marking their transition from mere governors to independent kings.
Ptolemy I Soter used Alexander's image to bridge a vital gap in authority, especially after he notoriously hijacked Alexander's funeral cortege to Egypt. His coinage focuses heavily on military triumph and divine protection.
The obverse iconography replaces the traditional lion skin of Heracles with an elephant scalp, symbolising Alexander’s legendary conquest of India and his military invincibility. Underneath, Alexander wears the Horns of Ammon, signifying his deification following his visit to the Siwa Oasis, alongside the protective scaly Aegis of Zeus and the headband of Dionysos.
The reverse of Ptolemy's coin features Athena Alkidemos, the "defender of the people," advancing with a spear and shield. Ptolemy also included his personal symbols—the eagle and thunderbolt—directly linking his own earthly power to the divine authority of Zeus and Alexander. While early issues read "Of Alexander", later versions boldly transitioned to read "Of Ptolemy".
Lysimachus took a distinctly different artistic approach, focusing on Alexander's mythic and divine qualities rather than his earthly military conquests. His coins feature a highly idealised portrait of Alexander, explicitly designed to emphasise his godhood.
The obverse portrays Alexander clean-shaven with an anastole (swept-back hair) and a heavenly gaze looking upwards, an artistic style established by the sculptor Lysippus to suggest divine inspiration. Crucially, the Horns of Ammon are prominent, cementing Alexander's status as a god rather than just a mortal king wearing a standard royal diadem.
The reverse depicts a seated Athena Nikephoros holding a small winged figure of Nike (Victory). In a powerful display of political legitimacy, Nike is shown crowning the inscribed name of Lysimachus with a laurel wreath. A lion symbol on Athena's shield cleverly references both Heracles and the personal legend of Lysimachus killing a lion bare-handed, subtly placing the Successor on par with mythic heroes.
Students often state that the Babylonian Diary proves Arrian is completely wrong about the battle; instead, argue that it provides a different, non-Greek perspective on the Persian morale collapse rather than invalidating Arrian's tactical descriptions.
For 15-mark evaluation questions on sources, examiners expect you to explicitly weigh the high 'reliability' of the Diary's dates against its limited 'utility' due to lacunae (missing fragments).
When analysing Successor coinage, do not just list the symbols; you must explain HOW they provided political legitimacy (e.g., 'Ptolemy used the elephant scalp to connect his rule directly to Alexander's legendary Indian conquests').
Be sure to distinguish between markers of earthly royalty (the diadem) and markers of actual deification (the Horns of Ammon) when discussing how Lysimachus and Ptolemy portrayed Alexander.
Babylonian Astronomical Diary
A systematic cuneiform record on clay tablets including celestial phenomena, commodity prices, and significant political or military events, recorded by Babylonian priests.
Cuneiform
The wedge-shaped writing system used by Babylonian scribes to record information on clay tablets.
Esagila
The primary temple complex in Babylon dedicated to the god Marduk, where the scribes who wrote the Astronomical Diaries worked.
Contemporary evidence
Historical source material that was created at the exact same time, or very shortly after, the events it describes.
Battle of Gaugamela
A decisive battle in 331 BCE where Alexander the Great defeated the Persian King Darius III, leading to the collapse of the Persian Empire.
Literary narrative
A secondary historical account that prioritises storytelling, characterisation, and military analysis, often written long after the events occurred.
Darius III
The last King of the Achaemenid Persian Empire (reigned 336–330 BCE) who was defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus and Gaugamela.
Lacuna
A missing, blank, or damaged section in an ancient text or tablet that results in a loss of historical information.
Diadochi
The rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC.
Silver tetradrachm
An ancient Greek silver coin equivalent to four drachmae, typically weighing around 17.2 grams on the Attic standard.
Posthumous issues
Coins that are minted bearing the image or name of a ruler after they have already died.
Basileus
The ancient Greek title and word for 'King', adopted by the Successors on their coinage to cement their independent authority.
Iconography
The specific visual images, symbols, and artistic details used in a work of art or on a coin to convey a deeper message.
Horns of Ammon
Ram's horns depicted on Alexander's head in art and coinage, signifying his divine status as the son of Zeus-Ammon.
Anastole
A specific ancient Greek hairstyle where the hair is swept back upwards from the forehead, heavily associated with portraits of Alexander the Great.
Diadem
A ribbon or headband worn by ancient monarchs as a symbol of earthly royalty, distinct from symbols of divinity.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for Ancient History
Babylonian Astronomical Diary
A systematic cuneiform record on clay tablets including celestial phenomena, commodity prices, and significant political or military events, recorded by Babylonian priests.
Cuneiform
The wedge-shaped writing system used by Babylonian scribes to record information on clay tablets.
Esagila
The primary temple complex in Babylon dedicated to the god Marduk, where the scribes who wrote the Astronomical Diaries worked.
Contemporary evidence
Historical source material that was created at the exact same time, or very shortly after, the events it describes.
Battle of Gaugamela
A decisive battle in 331 BCE where Alexander the Great defeated the Persian King Darius III, leading to the collapse of the Persian Empire.
Literary narrative
A secondary historical account that prioritises storytelling, characterisation, and military analysis, often written long after the events occurred.
Darius III
The last King of the Achaemenid Persian Empire (reigned 336–330 BCE) who was defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus and Gaugamela.
Lacuna
A missing, blank, or damaged section in an ancient text or tablet that results in a loss of historical information.
Diadochi
The rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC.
Silver tetradrachm
An ancient Greek silver coin equivalent to four drachmae, typically weighing around 17.2 grams on the Attic standard.
Posthumous issues
Coins that are minted bearing the image or name of a ruler after they have already died.
Basileus
The ancient Greek title and word for 'King', adopted by the Successors on their coinage to cement their independent authority.
Iconography
The specific visual images, symbols, and artistic details used in a work of art or on a coin to convey a deeper message.
Horns of Ammon
Ram's horns depicted on Alexander's head in art and coinage, signifying his divine status as the son of Zeus-Ammon.
Anastole
A specific ancient Greek hairstyle where the hair is swept back upwards from the forehead, heavily associated with portraits of Alexander the Great.
Diadem
A ribbon or headband worn by ancient monarchs as a symbol of earthly royalty, distinct from symbols of divinity.
