OCR GCSE Classical Civilisation (J199) — War and Warfare
Understanding how the Roman military was funded, manned, and trained explains how a single city-state maintained control over a vast empire. To secure loyalty and effectiveness, the Imperial Roman state developed highly systematic methods for selecting, preparing, and rewarding its troops.
The army was split into two distinct branches based on citizenship. A legionary was a professional heavy infantryman who had to be a Roman citizen. In contrast, an auxiliary was a non-citizen soldier, often recruited from conquered provinces, who provided specialist battlefield skills like archery or cavalry support.
Sailors and rowers were also recruited from non-citizen seafaring populations. Crucially, these naval personnel were free men or freedmen rather than slaves.
Before joining, every recruit faced a rigorous physical and medical examination known as the probatio. Once accepted, the new soldier received their first instalment of pay alongside a lead identification tag.
The most vital step of recruitment was swearing the sacramentum. By the Imperial era, recruits swore this sacred military oath directly to the Emperor rather than to their commanding general, and renewed it annually on the 1st of January. This oath transformed the soldier into someone who was sacer (consecrated to the gods).
Consequently, deserting the army was not just illegal, but a profound religious crime.
Initial training lasted around four months and took place on the campus, a dedicated flat parade ground. Our primary source for these methods is the writer Vegetius, who detailed the rigorous standards in his work De Re Militari. Physical conditioning was brutal, requiring soldiers to master the "military pace."
Recruits had to march 20 Roman miles (approx. 29.6km) in just five hours while carrying a sarcina (pack) weighing up to 60 lbs. For advanced training, the distance was increased to 24 Roman miles within the same five-hour limit.
Weapons training was designed to build immense physical strength using weighted equipment. Recruits practiced with a wooden sword called a rudis and wicker shields (scuta) that were intentionally twice the weight of standard battle equipment. Instructors, known as campidoctores, taught soldiers to strike a six-foot wooden post called a palus.
Recruits were strictly taught to thrust and stab rather than swing their blades. Stabbing was significantly more lethal at piercing vital organs and required far less space. This allowed the Romans to maintain tight formations like the testudo (tortoise).
Once a soldier mastered the post, they progressed to advanced paired sparring, known as armatura.
Naval personnel, known as classiarii, underwent highly specialised training. Because training at sea risked damaging expensive warships, recruits first learned to row in synchronisation by practicing on large wooden frameworks built on dry land.
When they transitioned to the water, naval drills focused on complex manoeuvres like ramming enemy vessels with the ship's bronze prow. Boarding actions were practiced using grappling hooks to secure enemy vessels. To make boarding more efficient, ship crews were organised into centuries, directly mirroring the structure of the land army.
The Imperial army was an enormous financial burden. While daily pay and food were covered by the treasury, ensuring a peaceful retirement for veterans required a dedicated system. In 6 AD, the Emperor Augustus established the Aerarium Militare.
This dedicated military treasury was designed to pay the praemia (discharge bonuses) for retiring soldiers. By guaranteeing state-funded pensions, Augustus ensured veterans remained loyal to the Emperor. This prevented ambitious generals from bribing soldiers with land, a practice that had previously fuelled civil wars.
The fund was initially seeded with 170 million sesterces of Augustus's own wealth. It was maintained through the Vicesima Hereditatium, a 5% inheritance tax levied on Roman citizens. Additionally, the Centesima Rerum Venalium was a 1% tax charged on goods sold at auction.
After completing a standard 25-year term (or 26 years in the navy), soldiers received an honourable discharge (honesta missio). The rewards differed based on their original status:
Students often assume Roman naval rowers were slaves, but the navy actually recruited free men or freedmen from seafaring provinces.
In 'Explain' questions about funding, examiners expect a causal link: explicitly state that the Aerarium Militare provided political stability because it stopped rogue generals from buying soldiers' loyalty with stolen land.
When discussing combat training, always highlight the tactical rationale: soldiers were taught to thrust rather than slash because it is more lethal and allows the army to maintain tight defensive formations.
Ensure you cite Vegetius (De Re Militari) as your primary ancient source when describing the army's training regimes and marching distances (e.g. 20 Roman miles in 5 hours).
Legionary
A professional heavy infantry soldier who had to be a Roman citizen to enlist.
Auxiliary
A non-citizen soldier who provided specialist skills, such as cavalry or archery, to the Roman army.
Probatio
The initial medical and physical examination all recruits had to pass before joining the military.
Sacramentum
The sacred military oath of loyalty sworn by recruits to the Emperor.
Sacer
A religious state of being consecrated to the gods, meaning breaking the military oath was a divine sacrilege.
Campus
The flat parade ground or training field located outside a military fort.
Vegetius
A 4th-century Roman writer whose work 'De Re Militari' is the primary source for Roman military training and marching distances.
Sarcina
A soldier's heavy marching pack, weighing between 45–60 lbs.
Rudis
A weighted wooden training sword used by recruits to build arm strength.
Scuta
Wickerwork training shields that were intentionally twice the weight of standard battle shields.
Palus
A six-foot wooden post used by recruits for weapons practice.
Testudo
A highly protective 'tortoise' formation where soldiers interlocked their shields overhead and at the sides.
Campidoctores
Specialised military officers responsible for instructing and training recruits.
Armatura
Advanced paired sparring exercises undertaken by soldiers after mastering the training post.
Classiarii
Naval personnel who were specifically trained for fighting on the decks of ships.
Aerarium Militare
The dedicated military treasury established by Augustus to fund veteran pensions.
Praemia
The discharge bonus or pension granted to a veteran upon completing their military service.
Vicesima Hereditatium
A 5% inheritance tax levied on Roman citizens to help fund the military treasury.
Centesima Rerum Venalium
A 1% sales tax on goods sold at auction, used to support the military treasury.
Honesta missio
An honourable discharge granted to a soldier after completing their full term of service.
Diploma
Bronze tablets awarded to retiring non-citizen soldiers that officially granted them Roman citizenship.
Conubium
The legal right to a recognised Roman marriage, often granted to retiring auxiliaries.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for Classical Civilisation
Legionary
A professional heavy infantry soldier who had to be a Roman citizen to enlist.
Auxiliary
A non-citizen soldier who provided specialist skills, such as cavalry or archery, to the Roman army.
Probatio
The initial medical and physical examination all recruits had to pass before joining the military.
Sacramentum
The sacred military oath of loyalty sworn by recruits to the Emperor.
Sacer
A religious state of being consecrated to the gods, meaning breaking the military oath was a divine sacrilege.
Campus
The flat parade ground or training field located outside a military fort.
Vegetius
A 4th-century Roman writer whose work 'De Re Militari' is the primary source for Roman military training and marching distances.
Sarcina
A soldier's heavy marching pack, weighing between 45–60 lbs.
Rudis
A weighted wooden training sword used by recruits to build arm strength.
Scuta
Wickerwork training shields that were intentionally twice the weight of standard battle shields.
Palus
A six-foot wooden post used by recruits for weapons practice.
Testudo
A highly protective 'tortoise' formation where soldiers interlocked their shields overhead and at the sides.
Campidoctores
Specialised military officers responsible for instructing and training recruits.
Armatura
Advanced paired sparring exercises undertaken by soldiers after mastering the training post.
Classiarii
Naval personnel who were specifically trained for fighting on the decks of ships.
Aerarium Militare
The dedicated military treasury established by Augustus to fund veteran pensions.
Praemia
The discharge bonus or pension granted to a veteran upon completing their military service.
Vicesima Hereditatium
A 5% inheritance tax levied on Roman citizens to help fund the military treasury.
Centesima Rerum Venalium
A 1% sales tax on goods sold at auction, used to support the military treasury.
Honesta missio
An honourable discharge granted to a soldier after completing their full term of service.
Diploma
Bronze tablets awarded to retiring non-citizen soldiers that officially granted them Roman citizenship.
Conubium
The legal right to a recognised Roman marriage, often granted to retiring auxiliaries.
