Edexcel GCSE History (1HI0) — Warfare and British Society and London WWII
If the government asked you to buy your own military gear based on the value of your house, you would be experiencing the medieval recruitment system. Between 1250 and 1500, warfare was completely dictated by the . Monarchs did not have the funds to maintain permanent forces, so they relied on the , which required knights to provide 40 days of unpaid military service in exchange for land.
By the 1400s, this rigid social structure began to evolve. The was largely replaced by , which were formal contracts paying captains to supply specific numbers of troops. At the same time, the social dominance of the mounted noble knight declined due to the deadly effectiveness of tightly packed infantry formations called and the rapid fire of the English longbow.
It might surprise you to learn that early firearms were actually less accurate and had a shorter range than the traditional English longbow. However, the introduction of gunpowder highlights a classic pattern of change: gradual evolution rather than an overnight revolution. Cannons first appeared in English armies around 1327, but handheld weapons slowly evolved over centuries from the clumsy to the , and finally the highly reliable in the 1690s.
The most significant turning point in this era was the creation of the in 1645. Unlike the temporary medieval levies, this was Britain's first permanent, professional .
Crucially, it operated on meritocracy rather than social hierarchy, meaning officers were promoted based on battlefield skill rather than noble birth. By 1689, public fear of this military power led to the , which legally prevented the monarch from keeping a in peacetime without Parliament's permission.
You can clearly see the impact of technology in everyday life, but in the 19th century, factories and telegraphs completely rewrote the rules of warfare. The Industrial Revolution allowed weapons to be mass-produced using stronger, cheaper steel thanks to the .
A regiment of 800 infantrymen upgrades from muzzle-loading to rifles. Calculate the difference in the total number of rounds the regiment can fire in one minute. (Assume a muzzle-loader fires 3 rounds per minute and a breech-loader fires 11 rounds per minute).
Step 1: Calculate the total firepower of the old weapons.
Step 2: Calculate the total firepower of the new weapons.
Step 3: Find the difference.
Alongside factory growth, Britain experienced a , becoming the first predominantly urban nation. Recruitment shifted from healthy rural farm workers to the urban poor seeking a steady wage.
However, many city recruits suffered from the —stunted growth and poor health caused by overcrowded, unsanitary slums. Following logistical disasters exposed by the newly invented electric telegraph during the Crimean War, the government introduced . A key feature of this was the , ensuring wealth could no longer buy command ranks.
Why does the creation of a national bank matter to military history? Because wars are ultimately won with money. In the medieval period, the King spent up to 100% of his income on warfare, but the total tax collected only represented about 1% to 2% of the country's overall wealth.
To fund massive, professional standing armies, Britain had to transform into a fiscal-military state. The establishment of the in 1694 allowed the government to borrow massive sums, creating the . By the 20th century, the incredible costs of total war meant the government had to extract far more wealth from society, introducing aggressive new direct taxes like the and expanding income tax to the working classes.
Students often confuse gradual evolution with rapid turning points; remember that the introduction of gunpowder was a slow evolution over centuries, whereas the creation of the New Model Army in 1645 was a sudden, dramatic turning point.
When answering 16-mark 'how far do you agree' questions on the process of change, always explicitly compare whether a change was driven by technology (e.g., the Bessemer Process) or by government attitudes (e.g., Cardwell's Reforms).
Examiners look for clear links between social structure and military composition; for top marks, explain how the demographic shift to cities directly forced the army to recruit from the urban poor.
If a question asks about continuity, you can argue that command of the army remained dominated by the wealthy upper classes from the medieval knights all the way until Cardwell's Reforms in 1871.
Abolition of Purchase of Commissions
An 1871 reform that stopped wealthy men from buying officer ranks, ensuring military promotions were based on merit rather than social class.
arquebus
An early, heavy handheld firearm used in the late 15th century that required a support stand for firing.
Assize of Arms
A medieval legal requirement that forced men to provide and maintain their own military equipment based on the value of their property.
Bank of England
A financial institution established in 1694 to lend the government money, enabling Britain to fund long-term wars through credit.
Bessemer Process
The first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron, crucial for modern artillery.
Bill of Rights
A 1689 law that limited royal power and prevented the monarch from keeping a standing army in peacetime without Parliament's consent.
Breech-loading
A firearm design where ammunition is loaded into the rear of the barrel, allowing for a much faster rate of fire and the ability to reload while prone.
Cardwell's Reforms
A series of 19th-century military changes (1868–74) designed to modernise the British Army, including improving conditions and merit-based promotion.
Commissioners of Array
Royal officials appointed to inspect military equipment and oversee recruitment at the local level under the Assize of Arms.
Demographic Transition
The shift in a population from a rural, agricultural society to a predominantly urban, industrial one.
Excess Profits Duty
A direct tax introduced in 1915 to reclaim the extra wealth made by businesses, such as arms manufacturers, during World War I.
feudal levy
The traditional medieval recruitment system where knights and freemen owed 40 days of unpaid military service to the monarch annually.
Feudal System
A medieval social hierarchy where the monarch granted land to nobles in exchange for loyalty and unpaid military service.
flintlock
An ignition system introduced in the late 17th century that used a piece of flint striking steel to create a spark.
Indentures
Written legal contracts introduced in the later medieval period where a monarch paid a captain to provide a specific number of troops for a set duration.
matchlock
A firearm mechanism that used a slow-burning cord (match) to ignite gunpowder.
National Debt
The total amount of money borrowed by the government, often through the Bank of England, to fund long-term warfare.
New Model Army
Britain’s first professional standing army, created by Parliament in 1645, where promotion was based on ability rather than social status.
Purveyance
The historical right of the Crown to forcefully requisition food, horses, and supplies from civilians to support an army on the march.
Rifling
Spiral grooves carved into the inside of a gun barrel that spin the bullet, increasing accuracy and range.
schiltrons
A defensive formation of infantry equipped with long pikes, arranged in a tight circle or square to repel cavalry.
Scutage
Also known as 'shield money', this was a tax paid by medieval landholders to the King to avoid active military service, which was then used to hire mercenaries.
standing army
A permanent, professional military force maintained by a nation in both peacetime and wartime.
Swedish Salvo
A tactical innovation where multiple ranks of musketeers fired their weapons simultaneously to deliver a devastating volley.
Trace Italienne
Star-shaped forts with low, thick, earth-packed walls designed to resist and absorb heavy artillery fire.
Urban Penalty
The negative health impacts, such as disease and stunted growth, suffered by 19th-century city dwellers due to overcrowded industrial slums.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History
Abolition of Purchase of Commissions
An 1871 reform that stopped wealthy men from buying officer ranks, ensuring military promotions were based on merit rather than social class.
arquebus
An early, heavy handheld firearm used in the late 15th century that required a support stand for firing.
Assize of Arms
A medieval legal requirement that forced men to provide and maintain their own military equipment based on the value of their property.
Bank of England
A financial institution established in 1694 to lend the government money, enabling Britain to fund long-term wars through credit.
Bessemer Process
The first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron, crucial for modern artillery.
Bill of Rights
A 1689 law that limited royal power and prevented the monarch from keeping a standing army in peacetime without Parliament's consent.
Breech-loading
A firearm design where ammunition is loaded into the rear of the barrel, allowing for a much faster rate of fire and the ability to reload while prone.
Cardwell's Reforms
A series of 19th-century military changes (1868–74) designed to modernise the British Army, including improving conditions and merit-based promotion.
Commissioners of Array
Royal officials appointed to inspect military equipment and oversee recruitment at the local level under the Assize of Arms.
Demographic Transition
The shift in a population from a rural, agricultural society to a predominantly urban, industrial one.
Excess Profits Duty
A direct tax introduced in 1915 to reclaim the extra wealth made by businesses, such as arms manufacturers, during World War I.
feudal levy
The traditional medieval recruitment system where knights and freemen owed 40 days of unpaid military service to the monarch annually.
Feudal System
A medieval social hierarchy where the monarch granted land to nobles in exchange for loyalty and unpaid military service.
flintlock
An ignition system introduced in the late 17th century that used a piece of flint striking steel to create a spark.
Indentures
Written legal contracts introduced in the later medieval period where a monarch paid a captain to provide a specific number of troops for a set duration.
matchlock
A firearm mechanism that used a slow-burning cord (match) to ignite gunpowder.
National Debt
The total amount of money borrowed by the government, often through the Bank of England, to fund long-term warfare.
New Model Army
Britain’s first professional standing army, created by Parliament in 1645, where promotion was based on ability rather than social status.
Purveyance
The historical right of the Crown to forcefully requisition food, horses, and supplies from civilians to support an army on the march.
Rifling
Spiral grooves carved into the inside of a gun barrel that spin the bullet, increasing accuracy and range.
schiltrons
A defensive formation of infantry equipped with long pikes, arranged in a tight circle or square to repel cavalry.
Scutage
Also known as 'shield money', this was a tax paid by medieval landholders to the King to avoid active military service, which was then used to hire mercenaries.
standing army
A permanent, professional military force maintained by a nation in both peacetime and wartime.
Swedish Salvo
A tactical innovation where multiple ranks of musketeers fired their weapons simultaneously to deliver a devastating volley.
Trace Italienne
Star-shaped forts with low, thick, earth-packed walls designed to resist and absorb heavy artillery fire.
Urban Penalty
The negative health impacts, such as disease and stunted growth, suffered by 19th-century city dwellers due to overcrowded industrial slums.
