Edexcel GCSE History (1HI0) — Russia and the Soviet Union
You cannot build modern tanks and aeroplanes without a massive supply of steel and coal. By the late 1920s, the Soviet Union's economy was lagging far behind the West, and the NEP (New Economic Policy) had only brought industrial production back to 1913 levels. The NEP also suffered from high unemployment and the "Scissors Crisis", where high industrial prices mismatched low grain prices. Stalin argued for a major ideological shift known as Socialism in One Country. He believed the USSR had to build a strong, self-sufficient socialist economy independently, rather than waiting for a global communist revolution. Security fears also played a crucial role in the decision to industrialise. Following a 1927 war scare involving Britain and France, Stalin was terrified of a combined Western invasion. In 1931, he famously stated that the USSR was 50 to 100 years behind advanced nations and had 10 years to catch up, or it would be crushed. Finally, abandoning the NEP was a calculated political move. By pushing for rapid state-controlled industrialisation, Stalin was able to outmanoeuvre his rival Bukharin and the "Right Opposition", securing his absolute grip on leadership.
When you buy a pair of shoes today, the price is usually decided by supply and demand in a free market. Under Stalin, the state completely replaced the free market, creating a strict Command Economy. The government made every single decision regarding what to produce, how much it should cost, and where it should go. This massive undertaking was managed by Gosplan, the State Planning Committee. Between 1928 and 1937, Gosplan oversaw the construction of 5,000 new factories and set extreme production targets, such as a 250% increase in overall industrial development during the First Five-Year Plan. Gosplan used a system to break these massive national goals down into specific quotas for regions, factories, and individual workers. They allocated physical raw materials using the Method of Material Balances to try and ensure targets were met. These quotas carried the force of law, and individual factory managers were held personally responsible for meeting them. Failure was frequently treated as treason, and those who missed targets or accidentally broke tools were labelled as a and faced execution or imprisonment in the Gulags.
It is a surprising fact that while the Soviet economy grew by 14% annually under the plans, ordinary citizens often struggled to find basic items like clothing or furniture. This happened because the state deliberately neglected Consumer Goods. Instead, the First Five-Year Plan directed up to 86% of all investment into Heavy Industry. Stalin's priority was building a military-industrial complex capable of defending the nation. The focus was entirely on raw materials and power generation; between 1928 and 1932, coal production nearly doubled from 35 million to 64 million tons, while electricity output saw a massive 270% increase. To achieve this, the state launched gigantic flagship projects like the Dnieper Dam and the new industrial city of Magnitogorsk. Built entirely from scratch in the Ural Mountains to mine iron ore, Magnitogorsk was modelled on American steel towns with the help of foreign firms. However, the human cost was devastating. Early workers in Magnitogorsk lived in freezing tents and mud huts, and 10,000 people died from disease, cold, and hunger in the first five years alone. Furthermore, the immense pressure to meet rushed quotas meant that huge quantities of the steel produced were of such poor quality that they were completely unusable.
How do you force millions of people to work harder without paying them a fortune? The Soviet state used a combination of intense propaganda, targeted rewards, and absolute terror. In 1935, a miner named Aleksei Stakhanov supposedly mined 14 times his coal quota in under six hours. Although he secretly had a team of assistants and superior equipment, the state used his feat to launch the Stakhanovite Movement. This campaign promoted Socialist Emulation, encouraging workers to compete against each other to smash production targets. Workers who consistently exceeded their quotas were named a Shock Worker (Udarnik). They were rewarded with better wages, new apartments, luxury goods like radios, and prestigious medals such as the Order of Lenin. Conversely, the negative incentives were brutal. The state reintroduced Internal Passports in 1932 to prevent workers from fleeing terrible conditions, and introduced Labour Books in 1938 to record any slacking. Being just 20 minutes late for a shift could result in a worker being sent to the Gulag.
Students often confuse Vesenkha and Gosplan. Remember that Vesenkha was established in 1917 to manage nationalised industry, whereas Gosplan took total control in 1928 to plan the economy and set the quotas.
In 'Explain why' questions worth 12 marks, categorise Stalin's motives for the Five-Year Plans into clear themes: Ideological (Socialism in One Country), Security (the 1927 war scare), and Political (defeating Bukharin).
When discussing the success of industrialisation, examiners expect a balanced evaluation: contrast the massive statistical growth in heavy industry with the horrific human cost and the poor quality of rushed goods.
Highlighting the Stakhanovite Movement demonstrates great knowledge of labour motivation, but ensure you mention that 'Socialist Emulation' caused deep resentment and tension among regular workers because it led the state to raise base quotas.
NEP (New Economic Policy)
A semi-capitalist economic policy used in the USSR between 1921 and 1928, which Stalin abandoned in favour of the Five-Year Plans.
Socialism in One Country
Stalin's ideological theory that the USSR could and should build a strong socialist state independently, rather than waiting for a global revolution.
Command Economy
An economic system where the state, rather than the free market, makes all decisions regarding production, distribution, and pricing.
Gosplan
The State Planning Committee responsible for creating the Five-Year Plans, setting quotas, and coordinating resources across the USSR.
Quotas
Strict, legally binding production targets that managers and workers were required to meet under the Five-Year Plans.
Method of Material Balances
Gosplan's system of allocating raw materials in physical units to ensure that factory production supplies could meet the national targets.
Wrecker
A propaganda term used to describe workers or managers who failed to meet quotas or accidentally broke equipment, accusing them of deliberate sabotage.
Consumer Goods
Everyday products made for personal use, such as clothes, shoes, and furniture, which were severely neglected under the Five-Year Plans.
Heavy Industry
Large-scale industries that produce raw materials or machinery, such as coal, iron, steel, and electricity.
Magnitogorsk
A gigantic steel-producing city built from scratch in the Ural Mountains during the First Five-Year Plan.
Stakhanovite Movement
A state propaganda campaign introduced in 1935 that encouraged workers to dramatically exceed their production quotas.
Socialist Emulation
State-sponsored competition between workers and factories to replace capitalist competition and drive up productivity.
Shock Worker (Udarnik)
An elite worker who consistently exceeded production targets and was rewarded with special privileges, better pay, and luxury goods.
Internal Passports
Documents reintroduced in 1932 that restricted the movement of Soviet citizens, preventing workers from leaving factories to find better conditions.
Labour Books
Employment records introduced in 1938 that documented a worker's history and any instances of slacking or poor discipline.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History
NEP (New Economic Policy)
A semi-capitalist economic policy used in the USSR between 1921 and 1928, which Stalin abandoned in favour of the Five-Year Plans.
Socialism in One Country
Stalin's ideological theory that the USSR could and should build a strong socialist state independently, rather than waiting for a global revolution.
Command Economy
An economic system where the state, rather than the free market, makes all decisions regarding production, distribution, and pricing.
Gosplan
The State Planning Committee responsible for creating the Five-Year Plans, setting quotas, and coordinating resources across the USSR.
Quotas
Strict, legally binding production targets that managers and workers were required to meet under the Five-Year Plans.
Method of Material Balances
Gosplan's system of allocating raw materials in physical units to ensure that factory production supplies could meet the national targets.
Wrecker
A propaganda term used to describe workers or managers who failed to meet quotas or accidentally broke equipment, accusing them of deliberate sabotage.
Consumer Goods
Everyday products made for personal use, such as clothes, shoes, and furniture, which were severely neglected under the Five-Year Plans.
Heavy Industry
Large-scale industries that produce raw materials or machinery, such as coal, iron, steel, and electricity.
Magnitogorsk
A gigantic steel-producing city built from scratch in the Ural Mountains during the First Five-Year Plan.
Stakhanovite Movement
A state propaganda campaign introduced in 1935 that encouraged workers to dramatically exceed their production quotas.
Socialist Emulation
State-sponsored competition between workers and factories to replace capitalist competition and drive up productivity.
Shock Worker (Udarnik)
An elite worker who consistently exceeded production targets and was rewarded with special privileges, better pay, and luxury goods.
Internal Passports
Documents reintroduced in 1932 that restricted the movement of Soviet citizens, preventing workers from leaving factories to find better conditions.
Labour Books
Employment records introduced in 1938 that documented a worker's history and any instances of slacking or poor discipline.
