Edexcel GCSE History (1HI0) — Early Elizabethan England
Why would two of England's most powerful men risk everything to overthrow their Queen? In November 1569, Thomas Percy (Earl of Northumberland) and Charles Neville (Earl of Westmorland) led a major rebellion against Elizabeth I. Their primary motivation was anger over the 1559 Elizabethan Church Settlement and the imposition of a radical Protestant bishop in Durham.
Politically, the earls were losing their traditional northern influence at court to "new men" like William Cecil. Economically, Northumberland was struggling after Elizabeth confiscated his lucrative copper mines. The arrival of Mary, Queen of Scots in England in 1568 provided a crucial "pull" factor, as the earls planned to marry her to the Duke of Norfolk to secure a Catholic heir.
The rebels briefly captured Durham Cathedral, destroyed Protestant Bibles, and celebrated Catholic Mass. They managed to raise 5,400 men, but the expected reinforcements of Spanish troops never arrived at Hartlepool.
Elizabeth easily raised a royal army of 14,000 men, proving the threat was localised rather than national. However, the revolt marked a turning point; Elizabeth ended her lenient policy towards Catholics and executed over 450 commoners. It also prompted Pope Pius V to issue a Papal Bull in 1570, excommunicating Elizabeth and ordering English Catholics not to obey her.
Uncovering a royal assassination plot required an international web of spies and secret messages. The Ridolfi plot aimed to assassinate Elizabeth, launch a Spanish invasion of 10,000 men from the Netherlands, and place Mary on the throne. The scheme was orchestrated by Roberto Ridolfi, an Italian banker acting as a papal spy.
First, Ridolfi travelled to Rome and Madrid in early 1571 to secure military and financial support from King Philip II of Spain. Meanwhile, in England, William Cecil and his assistant Sir Francis Walsingham were building a powerful intelligence system.
Walsingham's growing spy network tracked Ridolfi's movements and intercepted secret correspondence sent to the Spanish embassy. Finally, by interrogating the Duke of Norfolk's servants, Walsingham extracted confessions that exposed the entire plot.
The Duke of Norfolk was executed in June 1572, and the Spanish ambassador was expelled. Despite pressure from Parliament, Elizabeth still refused to execute Mary, Queen of Scots at this stage.
The danger to Elizabeth multiplied when rival European powers decided to work together against her. This plot involved a planned French invasion led by the Duke of Guise, funded by Spain and the Pope, to restore Catholicism and free Mary. Francis Throckmorton acted as the primary messenger between the conspirators.
Walsingham's surveillance system was fully operational and highly effective by this time. In April 1583, his agents observed Throckmorton secretly visiting the Spanish ambassador, Bernardino de Mendoza. Walsingham also used an informant inside the French embassy to gather crucial intelligence.
A search of Throckmorton's house in June 1583 uncovered a map of invasion ports and a list of Catholic sympathisers. Throckmorton was executed, and Mendoza became the final Spanish ambassador to be expelled during Elizabeth's reign. This plot highlighted the severe danger of foreign intervention, leading Walsingham to draft the Bond of Association to protect the Queen.
Catching a traitor is much easier when you secretly control how they communicate. Anthony Babington and a Jesuit priest named John Ballard planned to murder Elizabeth and install Mary using a French invasion force of 60,000 men. Mary was heavily guarded at Chartley Castle, making any outside communication extremely difficult.
Walsingham used an agent provocateur named Gilbert Gifford to infiltrate the plot. Gifford persuaded Mary to smuggle her letters out using the corks of beer barrels, ensuring Walsingham saw every message. Every intercepted letter was then passed to Thomas Phelippes, a cryptanalyst who decoded the complex ciphers.
On 17 July 1586, Mary wrote the "Gallows Letter," explicitly approving the assassination of Elizabeth. Phelippes forged a postscript asking for the names of the assassins, perfectly trapping the conspirators. Babington and his followers were executed in September 1586, finally providing the undeniable written proof needed to condemn Mary.
Executing a fellow sovereign was the most agonising and dangerous choice of Elizabeth's entire reign. Mary was executed at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587. The legal justification came from the Act for the Preservation of the Queen’s Safety, a law passed in 1585 that allowed the execution of anyone who benefited from a plot against Elizabeth.
The Babington Plot provided the necessary evidence, while the Bond of Association put immense political pressure on Elizabeth from her nobility. Rumours of a Spanish landing in Wales ultimately forced her to sign the death warrant.
The execution had profound consequences for English security. Domestically, it removed the only viable Catholic figurehead, effectively ending major internal uprisings. Internationally, Mary bequeathed her claim to the English throne to Philip II, giving him a justified reason to launch the Spanish Armada in 1588.
By executing an anointed monarch, Elizabeth set a dangerous precedent. To maintain diplomatic relations with Mary's son (James VI of Scotland) and avoid personal responsibility for regicide, Elizabeth blamed her secretary William Davison for sending the warrant without her final verbal permission.
Students often credit Walsingham with uncovering the Revolt of the Northern Earls. It was actually William Cecil who played the lead role in 1569; Walsingham became the primary spymaster later.
For 12-mark 'Explain why' questions, link the plots together: explain how the failure of one plot led to more extreme measures (like foreign invasion) in the next.
When analysing the Spanish Armada, distinguish between the trigger (Mary's execution in 1587) and the underlying cause (the 1585 Treaty of Nonsuch and religious differences).
Use the mnemonic 'Babington = Beer Barrels' to quickly recall the specific method of communication used in the 1586 plot.
Earl of Northumberland
Thomas Percy, a powerful Catholic northern nobleman who co-led the 1569 rebellion against Elizabeth I.
Elizabethan Church Settlement
The 1559 laws (Act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity) that established a moderate Protestant Church of England.
Papal Bull
A formal decree issued by the Pope; the 1570 Bull excommunicated Elizabeth and released Catholics from their loyalty to her.
Sir Francis Walsingham
Elizabeth's Secretary of State and spymaster, who developed a vast intelligence network to uncover plots against the Queen.
Spy network
A domestic and international system of informers and double agents managed by Walsingham to gather secret intelligence.
Catholicism
The branch of Christianity led by the Pope in Rome, which was the dominant religion in England before the Reformation.
Foreign intervention
The involvement of outside powers, such as France or Spain, in England's domestic affairs or succession.
Bond of Association
A 1584 document stating that if Elizabeth were assassinated, anyone who benefited from her death (namely Mary) would be executed.
Agent provocateur
A spy who infiltrates a group to encourage them to commit an illegal act, making it easier to identify and arrest them.
Ciphers
Secret codes used to hide the meaning of written communications, widely used by Catholic plotters.
Act for the Preservation of the Queen's Safety
A 1585 law making it legal to try and execute anyone involved in, or benefiting from, a plot against Elizabeth.
Spanish Armada
The great fleet sent by King Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England and overthrow Elizabeth I.
Anointed monarch
A ruler believed to be chosen directly by God; executing one was considered a severe crime against the divine order.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History
Earl of Northumberland
Thomas Percy, a powerful Catholic northern nobleman who co-led the 1569 rebellion against Elizabeth I.
Elizabethan Church Settlement
The 1559 laws (Act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity) that established a moderate Protestant Church of England.
Papal Bull
A formal decree issued by the Pope; the 1570 Bull excommunicated Elizabeth and released Catholics from their loyalty to her.
Sir Francis Walsingham
Elizabeth's Secretary of State and spymaster, who developed a vast intelligence network to uncover plots against the Queen.
Spy network
A domestic and international system of informers and double agents managed by Walsingham to gather secret intelligence.
Catholicism
The branch of Christianity led by the Pope in Rome, which was the dominant religion in England before the Reformation.
Foreign intervention
The involvement of outside powers, such as France or Spain, in England's domestic affairs or succession.
Bond of Association
A 1584 document stating that if Elizabeth were assassinated, anyone who benefited from her death (namely Mary) would be executed.
Agent provocateur
A spy who infiltrates a group to encourage them to commit an illegal act, making it easier to identify and arrest them.
Ciphers
Secret codes used to hide the meaning of written communications, widely used by Catholic plotters.
Act for the Preservation of the Queen's Safety
A 1585 law making it legal to try and execute anyone involved in, or benefiting from, a plot against Elizabeth.
Spanish Armada
The great fleet sent by King Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England and overthrow Elizabeth I.
Anointed monarch
A ruler believed to be chosen directly by God; executing one was considered a severe crime against the divine order.
