Before a single shot was fired in World War II, Adolf Hitler had already published his exact plans for Europe in his 1924 book, Mein Kampf. His core foreign policy aims were designed to systematically dismantle the post-WWI settlement and establish German dominance.
Hitler's strategy followed a step-by-step logic: first rebuild the military, then unite the German people to create a massive manpower pool, and finally expand East. Britain responded with a policy of Appeasement, driven by anti-war public opinion, economic focus on the Great Depression, and guilt over the harshness of Versailles. France was highly insecure but politically divided, choosing to focus on defensive fortifications like the Maginot Line rather than offensive action.
Imagine assassins storming a government building disguised as soldiers, assassinating the national leader, and seizing the local radio station to announce a fake resignation. This is exactly what happened in July 1934 during the Dollfuss Affair.
First, 154 Austrian Nazis staged a violent Putsch (overthrow attempt) and assassinated Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. However, the Austrian army remained loyal to the government. Finally, Mussolini moved 40,000 Italian troops to the Brenner Pass, threatening to invade if Germany intervened, forcing Hitler to back down and deny involvement.
In January 1935, Hitler achieved his first major, legal territorial victory through the Saar Plebiscite. The coal-rich Saar region had been controlled by the League of Nations for 15 years. A Plebiscite was held, and 90.3% of the population voted to rejoin Germany, providing a massive propaganda victory and vital coal for German Rearmament.
Rearmament had begun secretly in 1933, but in March 1935, Hitler held a "Freedom to Rearm" rally. He openly announced Conscription to build a 550,000-man army (36 divisions) and revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe, which already possessed 1,880 aircraft. By 1936, Hermann Göring launched the Four Year Plan to make Germany an Autarky (economically self-sufficient) and ready for war by 1940. This massive military spending created Invisible Unemployment; the official statistics reduced dramatically, but they did NOT include Jewish people, women, or conscripted soldiers.
Why did Britain and France fail to maintain a united front against Hitler when his military was still relatively weak? The answer lies in how Hitler expertly used bilateral (one-on-one) deals to fracture collective security.
In January 1934, Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact with Poland. This completely shattered France's Cordon Sanitaire (a buffer chain of allied states) and weakened the Little Entente alliance between Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. These nations saw Poland defect to a neutral stance, leaving France strategically isolated in the East.
To counter German expansion, Britain, France, and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 to protect Austrian independence. However, this united front collapsed just two months later when Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement without consulting its allies. This bilateral treaty effectively "legalised" German rearmament and destroyed the Treaty of Versailles limits.
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement allowed Germany a navy 35% the size of the Royal Navy and 45% (up to 100% in special circumstances) of its submarine strength.
If the British Royal Navy possessed 500,000 tonnes of surface shipping and 120 submarines, what was the maximum strength permitted for the German Navy under the 1935 agreement?
Step 1: Calculate the surface shipping allowance (35%).
Step 2: Calculate the submarine allowance (45%).
Step 3: State the final limits.
Because Britain acted out of self-interest, France felt forced into an Alliance de Revers (rear alliance). In May 1935, France signed the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, aiming for an Encirclement of Germany. Hitler later used this exact treaty as a legal pretext, claiming it threatened German security and justified his remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936.
Students often confuse Grossdeutschland (uniting existing German speakers, largely achieved by 1938) with Lebensraum (conquering non-German land in the East, beginning in 1939).
In 'Explain' questions regarding the failure of collective security, always use the Anglo-German Naval Agreement to demonstrate how Britain acted in self-interest rather than maintaining Allied unity.
When describing the 1934 Dollfuss Affair, explicitly state that it was Mussolini, not Britain or France, who successfully stopped Hitler by deploying troops to the Brenner Pass.
For higher marks, consistently use the specific German term 'Diktat' instead of just stating that Hitler disliked the Treaty of Versailles.
Diktat
The German term for 'dictated peace', describing the perceived unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles being forced upon them.
Grossdeutschland
'Greater Germany'; Hitler's aim to unite all German-speakers into one single state.
Volksdeutsche
Ethnic Germans living outside the borders of the German state.
Lebensraum
'Living space'; the Nazi policy of eastward expansion to conquer land and resources for the 'Aryan race'.
Appeasement
The diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict.
Maginot Line
A heavily fortified line of defensive structures built by France along its border with Germany.
Dollfuss Affair
The 1934 crisis where Austrian Nazis assassinated Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in a failed attempt to unite Austria and Germany.
Putsch
A violent, sudden attempt to overthrow a government.
Brenner Pass
The strategic mountain border between Austria and Italy where Mussolini deployed troops in 1934.
Saar Plebiscite
The 1935 vote where 90.3% of the Saarland population chose to return to German rule rather than remain under League of Nations control.
Plebiscite
A direct vote by the entire population of an area on a specific matter of sovereignty or national status.
Rearmament
The process of building up a nation's military forces and weapons.
Conscription
Compulsory enlistment for state service, typically into the armed forces.
Luftwaffe
The German Air Force, officially revealed by Hitler in 1935 in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.
Autarky
The economic policy of making a country entirely self-sufficient, reducing reliance on imported goods.
Invisible Unemployment
The Nazi practice of excluding certain groups (Jews, women, conscripts) from unemployment statistics to make economic recovery look stronger.
Cordon Sanitaire
A geographic barrier of friendly allied states intended to prevent the expansion of a hostile power.
Little Entente
A defensive alliance formed in the 1920s between Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, supported by France.
Stresa Front
A short-lived 1935 agreement between Britain, France, and Italy to maintain the status quo and resist further violations of the Treaty of Versailles.
Anglo-German Naval Agreement
A 1935 bilateral treaty allowing Germany to build a navy up to 35% the size of the British Royal Navy.
Alliance de Revers
A traditional French diplomatic strategy of seeking an ally on the opposite side of Germany to force them into a potential two-front war.
Mutual Assistance
A defensive agreement where two or more countries promise to provide military support to each other if one is attacked.
Encirclement
A diplomatic strategy to surround a potential enemy with hostile alliances to deter aggression.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History
Diktat
The German term for 'dictated peace', describing the perceived unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles being forced upon them.
Grossdeutschland
'Greater Germany'; Hitler's aim to unite all German-speakers into one single state.
Volksdeutsche
Ethnic Germans living outside the borders of the German state.
Lebensraum
'Living space'; the Nazi policy of eastward expansion to conquer land and resources for the 'Aryan race'.
Appeasement
The diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict.
Maginot Line
A heavily fortified line of defensive structures built by France along its border with Germany.
Dollfuss Affair
The 1934 crisis where Austrian Nazis assassinated Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in a failed attempt to unite Austria and Germany.
Putsch
A violent, sudden attempt to overthrow a government.
Brenner Pass
The strategic mountain border between Austria and Italy where Mussolini deployed troops in 1934.
Saar Plebiscite
The 1935 vote where 90.3% of the Saarland population chose to return to German rule rather than remain under League of Nations control.
Plebiscite
A direct vote by the entire population of an area on a specific matter of sovereignty or national status.
Rearmament
The process of building up a nation's military forces and weapons.
Conscription
Compulsory enlistment for state service, typically into the armed forces.
Luftwaffe
The German Air Force, officially revealed by Hitler in 1935 in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.
Autarky
The economic policy of making a country entirely self-sufficient, reducing reliance on imported goods.
Invisible Unemployment
The Nazi practice of excluding certain groups (Jews, women, conscripts) from unemployment statistics to make economic recovery look stronger.
Cordon Sanitaire
A geographic barrier of friendly allied states intended to prevent the expansion of a hostile power.
Little Entente
A defensive alliance formed in the 1920s between Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, supported by France.
Stresa Front
A short-lived 1935 agreement between Britain, France, and Italy to maintain the status quo and resist further violations of the Treaty of Versailles.
Anglo-German Naval Agreement
A 1935 bilateral treaty allowing Germany to build a navy up to 35% the size of the British Royal Navy.
Alliance de Revers
A traditional French diplomatic strategy of seeking an ally on the opposite side of Germany to force them into a potential two-front war.
Mutual Assistance
A defensive agreement where two or more countries promise to provide military support to each other if one is attacked.
Encirclement
A diplomatic strategy to surround a potential enemy with hostile alliances to deter aggression.