You can draw up a perfect blueprint for a house, but without the builders to construct it, it remains just a drawing.
Kennedy's New Frontier (1960) was an ambitious agenda to tackle poverty, health, and education through federal aid. His successes included the 1961 Housing Act, which provided $4.9 billion for urban renewal, and raising the minimum wage from $1.00 to $1.25. The 1962 Social Security Act expanded benefits for the unemployed and elderly, and unemployment fell from 7.1% to 5% by 1963.
However, Kennedy's vision frequently clashed with political reality. His major education bill for public school funding was blocked by Congress, and his proposal for national health insurance for the elderly was defeated by conservative Republicans and Southern Democrats. He did establish the Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO) to ensure fair federal hiring and created the Peace Corps in 1961.
Evaluation: Overall, while Kennedy's policies showed visionary intent, his lack of influence over Congress and his preoccupation with the Cold War severely limited his tangible domestic achievements. For example, his minimum wage increase did not assist the remaining 4 million unemployed Americans.
What happens when a "master politician" uses the momentum of national grief to pass laws that had been stuck for years?
Launched in 1964 following Kennedy's assassination, Johnson's Great Society aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice. The centrepiece was the War on Poverty, established via the Economic Opportunity Act (1964), which created the Job Corps and VISTA to provide vocational training rather than direct handouts. The results were dramatic: the national poverty rate dropped from 22.2% in 1960 to 12.1% in 1969, and Black American poverty plummeted from 55% to 27%.
Johnson also succeeded where Kennedy failed in health and education. The 1965 Social Security Amendments created Medicare (universal health insurance for those over 65) and Medicaid (health insurance for low-income families). Education reforms included the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (providing over $1 billion in federal aid) and the Higher Education Act, which supported 2 million students by 1970.
Evaluation: On one hand, Johnson's policies were a massive success in reducing poverty and improving minority health equity (by 1970, only 8% of the poor had never seen a doctor, down from 20% in 1965). On the other hand, the programme was ultimately limited by the spiralling costs of the Vietnam War. Republicans strongly criticised the $10 billion expenditure, arguing it created a "culture of dependency".
In 1961, women were paid 60% less than men for identical roles and held only 5% of managerial positions.
This stark inequality, highlighted by Kennedy's 1961 Presidential Commission, became the catalyst for Second-Wave Feminism. Unlike the first wave, which focused on voting rights, this movement aimed for workplace equality, reproductive rights, and a shift in domestic roles. Betty Friedan’s 1963 book, The Feminine Mystique, identified the profound dissatisfaction of suburban housewives and sold 3 million copies by 1966.
As the movement grew, it split into different factions with varying methods and aims.
The National Organisation for Women (NOW) was founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and other activists, quickly growing to 40,000 members. Predominantly composed of white, middle-class professionals, NOW took a reformist approach to achieving equality. Its primary aims included securing equal pay, reproductive rights, and maternity leave, which were formalised in its 1967 Bill of Rights. To achieve these goals, NOW relied on legal and political methods, such as lobbying the government, filing lawsuits against discriminatory employers, and organising large-scale demonstrations like the 1970 Strike for Equality.
In contrast, the Women's Liberation Movement (WLM) emerged around 1967–68, driven by younger, radical activists often arriving from the civil rights movement. Rather than seeking legal reforms, the WLM aimed to dismantle "patriarchy" and traditional gender roles entirely. They utilised radical direct action, famously protesting the 1968 Miss America pageant. Furthermore, they established Consciousness-Raising groups, where women shared personal experiences to understand how systemic sexism impacted their lives.
Summary of Feminist Factions:
| Feature | National Organisation for Women (NOW) | Women's Liberation Movement (WLM) |
|---|---|---|
| Origins | Founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others. Reached 40,000 members. | Emerged around 1967–68 among younger activists. |
| Demographics | Predominantly white, middle-class, and professional. | Younger, radical activists, often from civil rights backgrounds. |
| Aims | Equal pay, reproductive rights, maternity leave (1967 Bill of Rights). | Dismantling "patriarchy" and traditional gender roles entirely. |
| Methods | Reformist: Lobbied government, filed legal action, organised the 1970 Strike for Equality. | Radical: Direct action, Consciousness-Raising groups, protested the 1968 Miss America pageant. |
The movement achieved significant legislative victories, including the 1963 Equal Pay Act, Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (outlawing sex discrimination), and Title IX in 1972.
How does a country balance state laws with an individual's right to bodily autonomy?
Roe v Wade (1973) was a landmark 7–2 Supreme Court decision that ruled in favour of "Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey). The Court established that the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause guaranteed a "right to privacy", which protected a pregnant woman's liberty to choose to have an abortion.
To balance this right with state interests, the Court created a strict trimester framework:
The social impact was immediate: abortions moved from dangerous "backstreet" settings to safe medical facilities, drastically reducing maternal mortality. Politically, the ruling was highly divisive and directly sparked the Conservative Backlash, leading to the formation of the National Right to Life Committee.
Ironically, the most effective opponent to women's workplace equality in the 1970s was a highly educated female lawyer.
Phyllis Schlafly spearheaded the conservative opposition against the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), a proposed constitutional amendment stating rights could not be denied on account of sex. In 1972, she launched the STOP ERA campaign, arguing that the amendment would strip women of essential traditional privileges.
Schlafly warned that the ERA would force women into front-line military combat via the draft and end "dependent wife" Social Security benefits and alimony. She also used moral arguments, linking the ERA to rising abortion rates, same-sex marriage, and the creation of "unisex bathrooms". Her supporters, the Eagle Forum, famously brought homemade apple pies to legislators to symbolise traditional family values.
Her campaign was remarkably successful. The ERA required 38 out of 50 states to pass before the 1982 deadline. While 30 states ratified it quickly, Schlafly's lobbying slowed the momentum entirely; only 35 states ratified it, and 5 states actually rescinded their previous support. The amendment ultimately failed, demonstrating the powerful limits of the 1960s social reform movements.
Students often confuse Medicare and Medicaid; remember that MediCARE is for the elderly (over 65), while MediCAID is for low-income families and the disabled.
In 8-mark 'Evaluate' questions, you must provide a balanced judgement; acknowledge that while Johnson's Great Society drastically reduced poverty, its funding was ultimately crippled by the Vietnam War.
When analysing the feminist movement, use specific evidence to contrast the reformist, legal tactics of NOW with the radical, direct-action protests of the Women's Liberation Movement.
Do not claim that Phyllis Schlafly opposed women having careers entirely; she was a lawyer herself, but argued the ERA would remove traditional privileges like exemption from the military draft.
New Frontier
The collective name for President Kennedy's domestic and foreign policy proposals, aiming to tackle poverty, education, and health.
Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO)
A body established by President Kennedy to ensure equal opportunities for all federal government employees regardless of race.
Great Society
President Johnson's domestic programme aiming to improve the standard of living and eliminate racial injustice through federal intervention.
War on Poverty
The centrepiece of the Great Society programme, focusing on providing vocational training and education rather than direct welfare handouts.
Medicare
A universal government-funded health insurance programme established in 1965 for Americans aged 65 and over.
Medicaid
A joint federal and state health insurance programme established in 1965 to assist low-income families and the disabled.
Second-Wave Feminism
A feminist movement emerging in the 1960s that shifted focus from voting rights to workplace equality, reproductive rights, and domestic roles.
National Organisation for Women (NOW)
A reformist feminist organisation founded in 1966 that campaigned for workplace equality, reproductive rights, and the enforcement of the Civil Rights Act.
Women's Liberation Movement (WLM)
A radical feminist faction emerging in the late 1960s that aimed to completely dismantle traditional patriarchal structures through direct action.
Consciousness-Raising
Small group meetings where women shared personal experiences to understand how systemic sexism affected their daily lives, realising "the personal is political."
Roe v Wade
A landmark 1973 Supreme Court decision that established a woman's constitutional right to choose to have an abortion under a trimester framework.
Conservative Backlash
The political and social reaction of the 'New Right' against the progressive 1960s social changes, including opposition to abortion and the ERA.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
A proposed constitutional amendment stating that rights cannot be denied on account of sex, which ultimately failed to be ratified.
STOP ERA
A conservative campaign launched in 1972 by Phyllis Schlafly, arguing that the Equal Rights Amendment would strip women of essential traditional privileges.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History
New Frontier
The collective name for President Kennedy's domestic and foreign policy proposals, aiming to tackle poverty, education, and health.
Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO)
A body established by President Kennedy to ensure equal opportunities for all federal government employees regardless of race.
Great Society
President Johnson's domestic programme aiming to improve the standard of living and eliminate racial injustice through federal intervention.
War on Poverty
The centrepiece of the Great Society programme, focusing on providing vocational training and education rather than direct welfare handouts.
Medicare
A universal government-funded health insurance programme established in 1965 for Americans aged 65 and over.
Medicaid
A joint federal and state health insurance programme established in 1965 to assist low-income families and the disabled.
Second-Wave Feminism
A feminist movement emerging in the 1960s that shifted focus from voting rights to workplace equality, reproductive rights, and domestic roles.
National Organisation for Women (NOW)
A reformist feminist organisation founded in 1966 that campaigned for workplace equality, reproductive rights, and the enforcement of the Civil Rights Act.
Women's Liberation Movement (WLM)
A radical feminist faction emerging in the late 1960s that aimed to completely dismantle traditional patriarchal structures through direct action.
Consciousness-Raising
Small group meetings where women shared personal experiences to understand how systemic sexism affected their daily lives, realising "the personal is political."
Roe v Wade
A landmark 1973 Supreme Court decision that established a woman's constitutional right to choose to have an abortion under a trimester framework.
Conservative Backlash
The political and social reaction of the 'New Right' against the progressive 1960s social changes, including opposition to abortion and the ERA.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
A proposed constitutional amendment stating that rights cannot be denied on account of sex, which ultimately failed to be ratified.
STOP ERA
A conservative campaign launched in 1972 by Phyllis Schlafly, arguing that the Equal Rights Amendment would strip women of essential traditional privileges.