AQA GCSE History (8145) — British Depth Studies
Imagine trying to break into a locked stone vault using only wooden tools and ropes. This was the challenge of medieval sieges, requiring complex siege engines to batter down or bypass defenses. Attackers frequently used the battering ram, a heavy timber suspended within a wheeled, roofed structure called a "cat" or "bear" to protect operators from projectiles. The ram's head was usually metal-shod to splinter gates or drill into masonry, a technique known as the bore.
To shoot over tall walls, attackers built the trebuchet, the most powerful stone-thrower of the medieval era. Counterweight trebuchets used a heavy box of stones or sand to swing an arm upwards, launching projectiles weighing over 140kg over distances of 300m. Other artillery included the mangonel (a torsion or traction catapult) and the ballista (a giant crossbow used to pick off engineers with high-precision bolts).
If artillery failed, armies used the siege tower (or belfry), a multi-storey wooden structure on wheels covered in wet animal skins for fireproofing. The tower was wheeled to the wall so archers could suppress defenders before dropping a drawbridge for infantry. Alternatively, attackers might attempt an escalade, using simple ladders to scale walls rapidly under covering fire.
What goes up must come down, especially if you remove the ground directly beneath it. Undermining (also called sapping) was a devastating tactic used to collapse castle walls from below. This complex task required a coordinated siege train of skilled engineers and miners.
The process of undermining followed a strict, step-by-step sequence:
Defenders anticipated this tactic and built deep moats to prevent digging near the walls. If digging was detected, defenders engaged in counter-mining, excavating their own tunnels to intercept and kill the enemy sappers underground.
The deadliest weapon in a medieval army wasn't a sword or a catapult, but time itself. If a castle was too strong to breach, attackers relied on attrition, a strategy of wearing down the defenders through starvation and disease. This began by establishing a strict blockade, cutting off all food, water, and reinforcements from reaching the garrison trapped inside.
The attacking army would surround the site, cut supply lines, and burn local crops to prevent scavenging. Siege engines were used to launch continuous bombardments to disrupt sleep, and sometimes animal carcasses were thrown over walls to spread disease. At the Siege of Kenilworth in 1266, this exhausting process lasted 172 days, ending only when the garrison's food was entirely depleted.
However, long sieges were highly expensive and risked the attacking army's health. To negate the threat of attrition, King Edward I built concentric castles in coastal locations, allowing them to be safely resupplied by sea.
How do foot soldiers survive a thunderous charge from hundreds of heavily armored horses? Infantry typically made up 75% to 90% of a medieval army, and their survival depended entirely on tight infantry formations. A famous example is the schiltron, a compact circle or square of approximately 2,000 men wielding 12-foot pikes. While it did not allow for quick movement, it presented an impenetrable barrier of spears to enemy cavalry.
English armies dominated battlefields by using combined arms, coordinating infantry, cavalry, and the devastating longbow to cover each other's weaknesses. A typical battle sequence started with deployment on narrow fronts to protect flanks. Longbowmen, often arranged on the wings in a wedge-shaped herce, fired 10 to 12 arrows per minute to provoke the enemy into a premature attack.
The enemy was deliberately funneled into killing zones using difficult terrain, such as boggy ground or mud, to slow them down. To further defend against horses, archers hammered 6ft sharpened wooden stakes into the ground. Finally, dismounted knights or cavalry would counter-charge to finish the broken enemy in brutal hand-to-hand combat, known as the melee.
The medieval knight was the equivalent of a modern tank, serving as the elite strike force of the battlefield. Heavy cavalry fought using shock tactics, mounted on powerful warhorses called destriers. They used the couched lance technique, tucking the weapon firmly under the arm to transfer the horse's immense momentum directly into the enemy line.
To maintain a cohesive wall of horses until impact, the cavalry charge was a carefully phased acceleration from a walk to a trot, canter, and finally a gallop. Armies were typically divided into three positional units: the vanguard (lead unit, positioned on the right), the middle guard (central unit with the commander), and the rearguard (positioned on the left). Sometimes, these units executed a feigned retreat, pretending to flee to lure an enemy out of a strong defensive position.
Kings traditionally relied on a feudal levy, where nobles provided knights for 40 days of service. Over time, kings preferred to collect scutage (shield money) to hire professional mercenaries or heavily armored men-at-arms. To force an enemy army out into open battle, this cavalry often executed a chevauchée, a scorched-earth raid that destroyed local villages and crops.
Students often think 'attrition' refers to the number of soldiers killed on the battlefield, but in AQA history it specifically means the logistical exhaustion and starvation of a garrison during a siege.
When asked to 'Describe' a medieval siege tactic like undermining, examiners expect a step-by-step chronological account (e.g., 'First they dug a sap, then supported it with props, and finally burned the props').
For 8-mark 'Write an account' questions on Edward I's armies, clearly link the use of scutage to hire professional infantry with the tactical use of longbows to break schiltrons before the final cavalry charge.
Always mention the specific role of terrain in battlefield tactics—such as the boggy ground at Bannockburn or mud at Agincourt—as these features deliberately negated the speed of an enemy cavalry charge.
Siege engines
Machines designed to break down or circumvent castle walls and other fortifications during a siege.
Battering ram
A heavy timber, often metal-shod, used to break down gates or walls, usually protected by a wheeled structure.
The bore
A technique using the metal-capped head of a battering ram to drill directly into stone masonry.
Trebuchet
A highly powerful siege engine that uses a counterweight to sling heavy stone projectiles over long distances.
Mangonel
A torsion or traction-powered catapult used to throw stones during a siege.
Ballista
A giant crossbow mechanism used for the high-precision firing of large iron-tipped bolts.
Siege tower
A multi-storey wooden structure on wheels used to safely position attackers above enemy walls.
Escalade
The tactic of attempting to rapidly scale fortification walls using simple ladders under covering fire.
Undermining
Digging tunnels beneath castle walls to collapse them by burning the wooden props supporting the foundations.
Sapping
The process of digging a horizontal tunnel towards enemy fortifications during a siege.
Siege train
The collective artillery, engineers, sappers, and equipment required by an army to conduct a siege.
Sap
A horizontal tunnel dug under foundations during a siege to facilitate undermining.
Props
Temporary wooden supports used to hold up the cavity beneath a wall during the undermining process.
Moats
Deep, wide trenches surrounding a castle designed to prevent attackers from mining or bringing siege engines close.
Counter-mining
Defenders digging their own tunnels to intercept, fight, and kill enemy miners underground.
Attrition
A strategic process of wearing down defenders by cutting off food, water, and reinforcements until they surrender.
Blockade
Surrounding a fortified site to prevent any movement of supplies or personnel in or out.
Garrison
The body of defending troops stationed permanently inside a fortified place.
Infantry formations
Tactical, tightly packed arrangements of foot soldiers designed to maximise their defensive or offensive power.
Schiltron
A compact defensive formation of pikemen designed to present an impenetrable barrier of spears to charging cavalry.
Combined arms
The tactical coordination of different military units, such as archers, infantry, and cavalry, to cover each other's weaknesses.
Herce
A triangular or wedge-shaped block of archers positioned on the wings of an army to provide deadly crossfire.
Stakes
Sharpened 6ft wooden poles hammered into the ground by archers to impale charging enemy horses.
Melee
The chaotic, hand-to-hand combat phase of a battle that follows the initial exchange of arrows.
Shock tactics
Using the sheer momentum of a heavy cavalry charge to shatter and break enemy infantry lines.
Destriers
High-quality, powerful warhorses specifically bred and trained for the physical and mental demands of a cavalry charge.
Couched lance
A technique where a knight tucks their lance firmly under the arm to transfer the horse's momentum directly into the weapon.
Cavalry charge
A coordinated, accelerating attack by mounted knights designed to break enemy lines using momentum.
Vanguard
The leading division of a medieval army, typically positioned on the right flank when deployed for battle.
Middle guard
The central division of an army, usually containing the primary commander and the elite knights.
Rearguard
The final division of a medieval army, typically positioned on the left flank when deployed for battle.
Feigned retreat
A tactical manoeuvre where troops pretend to flee in order to lure an enemy out of a strong defensive position.
Feudal levy
A traditional system where nobles provided knights for 40 days of military service in exchange for land grants.
Scutage
Shield money paid by vassals to avoid military service, allowing kings to hire full-time professional soldiers instead.
Mercenaries
Professional soldiers hired to serve in a foreign army for pay.
Men-at-arms
Heavily armed mounted soldiers who fought alongside knights but did not necessarily hold noble titles.
Chevauchée
A scorched-earth raiding tactic used to destroy enemy resources and force their army into fighting an open battle.
Put your knowledge into practice — try past paper questions for History
Siege engines
Machines designed to break down or circumvent castle walls and other fortifications during a siege.
Battering ram
A heavy timber, often metal-shod, used to break down gates or walls, usually protected by a wheeled structure.
The bore
A technique using the metal-capped head of a battering ram to drill directly into stone masonry.
Trebuchet
A highly powerful siege engine that uses a counterweight to sling heavy stone projectiles over long distances.
Mangonel
A torsion or traction-powered catapult used to throw stones during a siege.
Ballista
A giant crossbow mechanism used for the high-precision firing of large iron-tipped bolts.
Siege tower
A multi-storey wooden structure on wheels used to safely position attackers above enemy walls.
Escalade
The tactic of attempting to rapidly scale fortification walls using simple ladders under covering fire.
Undermining
Digging tunnels beneath castle walls to collapse them by burning the wooden props supporting the foundations.
Sapping
The process of digging a horizontal tunnel towards enemy fortifications during a siege.
Siege train
The collective artillery, engineers, sappers, and equipment required by an army to conduct a siege.
Sap
A horizontal tunnel dug under foundations during a siege to facilitate undermining.
Props
Temporary wooden supports used to hold up the cavity beneath a wall during the undermining process.
Moats
Deep, wide trenches surrounding a castle designed to prevent attackers from mining or bringing siege engines close.
Counter-mining
Defenders digging their own tunnels to intercept, fight, and kill enemy miners underground.
Attrition
A strategic process of wearing down defenders by cutting off food, water, and reinforcements until they surrender.
Blockade
Surrounding a fortified site to prevent any movement of supplies or personnel in or out.
Garrison
The body of defending troops stationed permanently inside a fortified place.
Infantry formations
Tactical, tightly packed arrangements of foot soldiers designed to maximise their defensive or offensive power.
Schiltron
A compact defensive formation of pikemen designed to present an impenetrable barrier of spears to charging cavalry.
Combined arms
The tactical coordination of different military units, such as archers, infantry, and cavalry, to cover each other's weaknesses.
Herce
A triangular or wedge-shaped block of archers positioned on the wings of an army to provide deadly crossfire.
Stakes
Sharpened 6ft wooden poles hammered into the ground by archers to impale charging enemy horses.
Melee
The chaotic, hand-to-hand combat phase of a battle that follows the initial exchange of arrows.
Shock tactics
Using the sheer momentum of a heavy cavalry charge to shatter and break enemy infantry lines.
Destriers
High-quality, powerful warhorses specifically bred and trained for the physical and mental demands of a cavalry charge.
Couched lance
A technique where a knight tucks their lance firmly under the arm to transfer the horse's momentum directly into the weapon.
Cavalry charge
A coordinated, accelerating attack by mounted knights designed to break enemy lines using momentum.
Vanguard
The leading division of a medieval army, typically positioned on the right flank when deployed for battle.
Middle guard
The central division of an army, usually containing the primary commander and the elite knights.
Rearguard
The final division of a medieval army, typically positioned on the left flank when deployed for battle.
Feigned retreat
A tactical manoeuvre where troops pretend to flee in order to lure an enemy out of a strong defensive position.
Feudal levy
A traditional system where nobles provided knights for 40 days of military service in exchange for land grants.
Scutage
Shield money paid by vassals to avoid military service, allowing kings to hire full-time professional soldiers instead.
Mercenaries
Professional soldiers hired to serve in a foreign army for pay.
Men-at-arms
Heavily armed mounted soldiers who fought alongside knights but did not necessarily hold noble titles.
Chevauchée
A scorched-earth raiding tactic used to destroy enemy resources and force their army into fighting an open battle.
